tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-78470639323197547212024-02-07T19:41:52.652-08:00HISTORY IN THE NEWSTHE NEWS IS HISTORY. HISTORY IS THE NEWS.
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.comBlogger322125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-90218593236609144572021-12-08T17:01:00.001-08:002021-12-08T17:01:07.988-08:00SYRIA'S CITIES: HISTORY AND NIGHTMARE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<b>SYRIA'S CITIES: HISTORY AND NIGHTMARE </b></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b><br /></b></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b>Aleppo</b> (Kurds) <br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> took over the city in 333 BC. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_Nicator" title="Seleucus Nicator">Seleucus Nicator</a> established a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Republic" title="Hellenic Republic">Hellenic</a> settlement in the site between 301 and 286 BC. He called it <i>Beroea</i> (Βέροια), after <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veria" title="Veria">Beroea</a> in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon" title="Macedon">Macedon</a>.<br />
Northern Syria was the center of gravity of the Hellenistic colonizing activity, and therefore of Hellenistic culture in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a><br />
Beroea remained under Seleucid rule until 88 BC when Syria was occupied by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> and Beroea became part of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_%28antiquity%29" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a>.<br />
<br />
After the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a> victory over Tigranes, Syria was handed over to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> in 64 BC, at which time they became a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman province</a>.<br />
<br />
325 AD- Christian.<br />
<br />
Very few physical remains have been found from the Roman and Byzantine
periods in the Citadel of Aleppo. The two mosques inside the Citadel are
known to be converted from churches originally built by the Byzantines.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Julia1_40-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-Julia1-40">[40]</a></sup> They were later converted into mosques by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasids</a> during the 11th century.<br />
<br />
The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_Persia" title="Sassanid Persia">Sassanid Persians</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine-Sassanid_War_of_602-628" title="Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628">invaded and controlled</a> Syria briefly in the early 7th century. Soon after Aleppo fell to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquests" title="Muslim conquests">Muslims</a> under <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ubaidah_ibn_al_Jarrah" title="Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah">Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah</a> in 637. In 944, it became the seat of an independent Emirate under the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamdanid" title="Hamdanid">Hamdanid</a> prince <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayf_al-Daula" title="Sayf al-Daula">Sayf al-Daula</a>, and enjoyed a period of great prosperity, being home to the great poet <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mutanabbi" title="Al-Mutanabbi">al-Mutanabbi</a> and the philosopher and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farab</a><br />
<br />
The city was sacked by a resurgent Byzantine Empire in 962, while
Byzantine forces occupied it briefly from 974 to 987. The city and its
Emirate became an Imperial vassal from 969 until the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Seljuk_Wars" title="Byzantine–Seljuk Wars">Byzantine–Seljuk Wars</a>. The city was twice besieged by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a>, in 1098 and in 1124, but was not conquered.<br />
<br />
In 1128 Aleppo became capital of the expanding <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid dynasty</a>, which ultimately conquered Damascus in 1154. In 1183 Aleppo came under the control of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> and then the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubid" title="Ayyubid">Ayyubid</a> Dynasty.<br />
On 24 January 1260,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-41"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Aleppo_%281260%29" title="Siege of Aleppo (1260)">city was taken</a> by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> under <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulagu" title="Hulagu">Hulagu</a> in alliance with their vassals the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">Frank</a> knights of the ruler of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemond_VI" title="Bohemond VI">Bohemond VI</a> and his father-in-law the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilician_Armenia" title="Cilician Armenia">Armenian</a> ruler <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetoum_I" title="Hetoum I">Hetoum I</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup><br />
<br />
On 20 October 1280, the Mongols took the city again, pillaging the
markets and burning the mosques. The Muslim inhabitants fled for
Damascus, where the Mamluk leader <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalawun" title="Qalawun">Qalawun</a> assembled his forces. When his army advanced, the Mongols again retreated, back across the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>.<br />
In 1400, the Mongol-Turkic leader <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Tamerlane</a> captured the city again from the Mamluk<br />
<br />
Aleppo became part of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1516, when the city had around 50,000 inhabitants. It was the centre of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_Eyalet" title="Aleppo Eyalet">Aleppo Eyalet</a>;
the rest of what later became Syria was part of either the eyalets of
Damascus, Tripoli, Sidon or Raqqa. Following the Ottoman provincial
reform of 1864 Aleppo became the centre of the newly constituted Vilayet
of Aleppo in 1866<br />
<br />
Thanks to its strategic geographic location on the trade route between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and the east, Aleppo rose to high prominence in the Ottoman era, at one point being second only to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in the empire<br />
<br />
As a result of the economic development, many European states had opened
consulates in Aleppo during the 16th and the 17th centuries, such as
the consulate of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> in 1548, the consulate of France in 1562, the consulate of England in 1583 and the consulate of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> in 1613.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: medium;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49"> In 1850 a Muslim mob <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_of_Aleppo_%281850%29" title="Massacre of Aleppo (1850)">attacked</a>
Christian neighbourhoods, tens of Christians were killed and several
churches looted. Janissary rebels installed their own government when
the Ottoman governor fled. The Ottomans took over the city weeks later
killing some 5,000.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> By 1901, the city's population was around 110,000. </sup> <br /></span>
<br />
At the end of World War I, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a> made most of the Province of Aleppo part of the newly established nation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, while Cilicia was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%E2%80%93Armenian_Agreement_%281916%29" title="French–Armenian Agreement (1916)">promised</a> by France to become an Armenian state. However, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Kemal Atatürk">Kemal Atatürk</a> annexed most of the Province of Aleppo as well as Cilicia to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> in his <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_war_of_independence" title="Turkish war of independence">War of Independence</a>.<br />
<br />
The outcome, however, was disastrous for Aleppo, because as per the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a>, most of the Province of Aleppo was made part of Turkey with the exception of Aleppo and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandretta" title="Alexandretta">Alexandretta</a>;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-atak5_52-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-atak5-52">[52]</a></sup>
thus, Aleppo was cut from its northern satellites and from the
Anatolian cities beyond on which Aleppo depended heavily in commerce.
Moreover, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykes-Picot" title="Sykes-Picot">Sykes-Picot</a> division of the Near East separated Aleppo from most of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>,
which also harmed the economy of Aleppo. The situation was exacerbated
further in 1939 when Alexandretta was annexed to Turkey,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-atak_53-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-atak-53">[53]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-atak3_54-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-atak3-54">[54]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-atak4_55-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-atak4-55">[55]</a></sup> thus depriving Aleppo of its main port of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iskenderun" title="Iskenderun">Iskenderun</a> and leaving it in total isolation within Syria.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (June 2015)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup><br />
<br />
<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Aleppo" title="State of Aleppo">State of Aleppo</a> was declared by the French General <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Gouraud_%28French_Army_officer%29" title="Henri Gouraud (French Army officer)">Henri Gouraud</a>
in September 1920 as part of a French </sup><br />
<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;">scheme to make Syria easier to
control by dividing it into several smaller states. France became more
hostile to </sup><br />
<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;">the idea of a united Syria after the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maysaloun" title="Battle of Maysaloun">Battle of Maysaloun</a>. </sup><br />
<br />
France proposed the idea of a Syrian federation that was realized in
1923. Initially, Gouraud envisioned the federation as encompassing all
the states, even Lebanon. In the end however, only three states
participated: Aleppo, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Damascus" title="State of Damascus">Damascus</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawite_State" title="Alawite State">Alawite State</a>.<br />
<br />
The increasing disagreements between Aleppo and Damascus led eventually to the split of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Block" title="Syrian National Block">National Block</a> into two factions: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_%28Syria%29" title="National Party (Syria)">National Party</a>, established in Damascus in 1946, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_%28Syria%29" title="People's Party (Syria)">People's Party</a>, established in Aleppo in 1948 by Rushdi Kikhya and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazim_Qudsi" title="Nazim Qudsi">Nazim Qudsi</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
An underlying cause of the disagreement, in addition to the union with
Iraq, was Aleppo's intention to relocate the capital from Damascus. The
issue of the capital became an open debate matter in 1950 when the
Popular Party presented a constitution draft that called Damascus a
"temporary capita <br />
<br />
President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>, who came to power in 1970, relied on support from the business class in Damascus.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
This gave Damascus further advantage over Aleppo, and hence Damascus
came to dominate the Syrian economy. The strict centralization of the
Syrian state, the intentional direction of resources towards Damascus,
and the hegemony Damascus enjoys over the Syrian economy made it
increasingly hard for Aleppo to compete. Hence, Aleppo is no longer an
economic or cultural capital of Syria as it once used to be<br />
<br />
<b>Latakia(Alawites)</b><br />
<br />
Homs (Christinas?)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Douma (Shia?)<br />
<br />
Deraa<br />
<br />
Raqqa<br />
<br />
Al Hasaqa- Syrian-Iraqi Kurds</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-61256066762031585972021-12-08T16:59:00.000-08:002021-12-08T16:59:56.724-08:00ISIS: TIMELINE FOR THE RELIGIOUS AND SECTARIAN BACKGROUND.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b>ISIS: TIMELINE FOR THE RELIGIOUS AND SECTARIAN BACKGROUND.</b><br />
<br />
<i> </i>630-
Battle of Hunayn, Mohammed defeats the Hawazin Bedouins near Mecca. One
of his followers, Huruqus ibn Zuhair, criticizes Mohammed for offering
booty in return for converting to Islam. Mohammed predicts that he will
betray Islam. <br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
<br />
<b>The Rashidun Caliphate (632-661): Ali and Abu Bakr: the split between the Shia and the Sunni </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" src="http://apworldwiki2011-12.weebly.com/uploads/9/9/9/6/9996001/1567867_orig.jpg" height="301" style="margin-top: 46px;" width="315" /><br />
<br />
<span class="irc_su" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;">The Prophet Muhammed surrounded by the four Rashidun Caliph's</span><br />
<br />
-632-
3 months before Mohammed's death, on his last pilgrimmage to mecca,
Shiites believe that he stopped his caravan by a pond and said, "Do I
not have more to say to you than all the others?" Followers ay 'yes'.
Then he says, "All those whom I command shall also be commanded by Ali."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
-but
Abu Bakr, Mohammed's companion had been asked by the prophet to lead
the prayers before his death, making him virtual leader.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
-but after Mohammed's death in 632- many refuse to recongize Ali.</div>
<br />
-Though Ali had been a close deputy and a military commander, Abu Bakr (632-634) became the Caliph or successor.<br />
<br />
-637- Arab Muslims take Mesopotamia from the Persian Sassinids.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
-Abu Bakr
succeeded by Omar (634-644) and the third Caliph Osman- (644-656) followers from
the old Arab aristocracy of Mecca- recent allies of Mohammed. Ali could
not accept Osman and joined opposition because, though he differed on
matters of doctrine with Bakr and Omar, his differences with Osman were
severe. Osman followed by Hazrat Ali.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
-Ali accepted the first two Caliphs Bakr and Omar</div>
<br />
-656-
assassination of third caliph- Osman by Egyptian rebels along with the the son of
Omar. Ali appointed to Caliphate by the ruling tribe, the Quraysh.
He decided not to punish the rebels severely. He was opposed by Aisha, wife
of Muhammed and daughter of Abu Bakr who wanted rebels punished. <br />
<br />
656-661- Caliphate of Ali <br />
<br />
<i> </i><b>The First Fitna or Civil War and the formation of the Karijites</b><br />
<br />
-"Following
the murder of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (Osman), the caliphate of the
Muslim Empire passed to Ali the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet
Muhammad (Ali ibn Abi Talib the Prophet Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law
- the first Imam of Shia Islam). Shortly after ascending to the
caliphate,
Ali commenced consolidating his hold over the empire." (About.com) <br />
<br />
<div class="copy-paste-block">
-the governor of Damascus, Mu’awiyah, was one of Ali’s principal opponents</div>
<br />
- Muawiyah, a kinsman of the
slain Uthman (Osman), refused to acknowledge Ali as caliph due his
inability to bring the murderers to justice. In an attempt to avoid
bloodshed, Ali sent an envoy, Jarir, to Syria to seek a peaceful
solution. Jarir reported that Muawiyah would submit when the murderers
were caught." (About.com) <br />
<br />
- Muawiyah leads his army in an assault on the forces of Ali.<i> </i><br />
<br />
<b>The Battle of Siffin.</b><br />
<br />
<i> </i>657
AD- The Battle of Siffin- at Raqqa, on the Euphrates, between Ali Ibn
Abi Talib and Muawiya at Al Raqqa, Syria. The battle is fought to a
draw.<br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" src="http://static2.wikia.nocookie.net/__cb20071106114353/genealogy/images/9/93/Battle_of_Siffin1.jpg" height="393" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="209" /><br />
Battle of Siffin<br />
<br />
<i>-</i>further negotiations fail when a faction
on the side of Ali Ibn Abi Talib objects to Ali that negotiations with
Muawiya are wrong because only Allah can decide.<br />
<br />
<b>The Karijites</b><br />
<br />
-in
Jufa, Iraq, the secessionists, known as Karijites (separatists), reject
any further discussion with Ali. They form again in Nahrawan, Iraq,
where they elect Abdullah
ibn Wahb al-Rasibi and Hurqus ibn Zuhair (who had critcized Mohammed
at the batttle of Hunayn in 630).<br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for Kharijites" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRYvdne0zldGOemg8rcsoXCXCpk41G1nxYpshQWg7XlZDRfMWI00A" data-sz="f" name="aWXfgZ7wdglfHM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRYvdne0zldGOemg8rcsoXCXCpk41G1nxYpshQWg7XlZDRfMWI00A" style="height: 208px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 145px;" /><br />
<br />
-the Kharijites "held that the judgment of God could only be expressed through the
free choice of the entire Muslim community. They insisted that anyone,
even a black slave, could be elected caliph
(that is, head of the Muslim community) if he possessed the necessary
qualifications, chiefly religious piety and moral purity. A caliph may
be deposed upon the commission of any major sin. The Khārijites thus set
themselves against the legitimist claims (to the Caliphate) of the
tribe of Quraysh
(among the Sunnites) and of ʿAlī’s descendants (among the Shīʿites). As
proponents of the democratic principle, the Khārijites drew to
themselves many who were dissatisfied with the existing political and
religious authorities." -Encyclopedia Britannica On line. <br />
<br />
"The historians al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir chronicle alarmingly precise
accounts of their intimidation, violence and terror....Tey detail how the <i>Khawarij</i> began terrorizing the countryside around Nahrawan, Iraq, subjecting those whom they caught to an <i>imtihan</i>
or “inquisition”. If the answers failed to satisfy their zeal for
purity, or agree with their understanding of things, then the punishment
was death." -Muslimmatters.org, Aug 24, 2015.<br />
<br />
-at Nahrawan, when one of Ali's governors, Abdullah ibn Khabbaab
al-Aratt, tries to reason with members of the newly founded Karijites, they hack him and his pregnant wife to death.<br />
<br />
661-
Kufa- assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib- first imam- rightful
successor to Mohammed. Killed by Kharijite extremists in the mosque of
Kufa. (Shia = partisans of Ali). Shiites see this act as a rejection of
the true succession by the Muslim majority. Buried at Najaf. Ali has
since passed his own infallibility on to a series of Imams.<br />
<br />
<b>Umayyad Caliphate- 661-750.</b><br />
<br />
661- Muawiyah is crowned head of the Muslim Empire in Jerusalem. He establishes the Umayyad Caliphate.<br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for muawiyah i" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="7q_OmXKUtqLlAM:" 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" 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<br />
"...according to the Famous Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya, <i>Kharijite</i><i>s</i> were the first to use excommunication processes against the rest of the Muslim community. Committing sin is viewed by <i>Kharijites</i>
as a justifiable reason to excommunicate any Muslim who is not in
accordance with their framework of interpreting major Islamic texts.
They then find it lawful for them to fight supposed Muslim sinners and
kill them." -Morocco World News, December 3, 2014.<br />
<br />
683- " In the period of civil war (<i>fitnah</i>) following the death of the
caliph Yazīd I (683), the Khārijites were the source of serious
disruptions within the Umayyad domain and in Arabia. Subdued through the
intensive campaigning of <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="ref268124" name="ref268124"></a>al-Ḥajjāj,
the Khārijites did not stir again until the collapse of the Umayyads,
and then their two major rebellions, in Iraq and Arabia, ended in
defeat." - Encyclopedia Britannica on line.<br />
<br />
745- circa- Muslim Millenarism: The earliest messianic figure in Islam was probably Jesus, who was taken
up to heaven by God—rather than crucified (Koran 3:55) as in
Christianity—with the understanding that he would return at the end of
the world; the more prevalent figure, however, was that of the Mahdi,
the rightly guided one. This title began to appear attached to prominent
political and religious figures by the middle of the seventh century,
but the predictions concerning him received their present form during
the period of the Abbasid revolution (740–749): the Mahdi will arise in
the east, in the region of Khorasan (today eastern Iran and
Afghanistan), raise an army, march through the Iranian plateau to Iraq
and establish his messianic kingdom there after purifying the Muslim
world of evil. This scenario mirrored the Abbasid rise to power closely
and served to legitimize their revolution. By contrast, the figure of
Jesus remained in Muslim apocalyptic beliefs primarily to fight and slay
the Dajjal (the Antichrist), who will appear prior to the messianic
kingdom and test the Muslims. Jesus will return from heaven at the
advent of the messianic age, slay the Dajjal near Jerusalem, and then
pray behind the Mahdi. Read more: Islamic Millenarianism - Bibliography - Messianic, Muslim, Apocalyptic, and World - JRank Articles http://science.jrank.org/pages/7870/Islamic-Millenarianism.html#ixzz3kvmUQaWp<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Hanbal</b> <br />
<br />
780-855-
Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, sounder of the Hanbali code of Sharia law. He holds
that a decision in Sharia must be referred directly to the Quran and the
sunna- not to the legal framework that had grown up around them. In
other words, he held that the law itself had already been written in the
words of the Quran.<br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for Ahmad Ibn Hanbal" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTobDUJI67aT5Iz__mr6w-ostOHXLdYpSHkvIaGQ5oju_Iwh74BtQ" data-sz="f" name="SBvhxEjg13s3RM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTobDUJI67aT5Iz__mr6w-ostOHXLdYpSHkvIaGQ5oju_Iwh74BtQ" style="height: 184px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 160px;" /><br />
<br />
-in subsequent centuries, the Hanbali Code loses strength everywhere except at Najd in central Arabia.<br />
<br />
<span class="text"><b>Taqi al-Deen Ahmad Ibn Taymiyya (1268-1328AD)</b></span><br />
<br />
1300- <span class="text">Taqi al-Deen Ahmad Ibn Taymiyy: </span><span class="text">"The mediæval Hanbali professor Ibn
Taymiyya has been the most important inspiration for Sunni radicals of
the modern era, and indeed he is respected for his scholarship by many
non-radical Sunnis, despite the considerable reservations they express
about his radicalism.<sup>1</sup> Ibn Taymiyya was more outspoken than Ahmad bin Hanbal<sup>2</sup>
and lived in a time in which Islam was exposed to unusual pressure,
most notably the conquest of the Abbasid Caliphate by the heathen
Mongols in 1258 AD.<sup>3</sup> These two factors help explain the
revival by radicals of Ibn Taymiyya's legacy in the face of secularism,
colonialism and the decline of the international prestige of the <i>Umma</i> (Muslim community) during the modern age." http://www.pwhce.org/taymiyyah.html</span><br />
<span class="text"> <img class="irc_mi" src="http://islamiceconomy.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/ibn-taymiyyah.jpg" height="246" style="margin-top: 74px;" width="205" /> </span><br />
Ibn Tayamiyya<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Wahhabi Movement of the 18th Century. </span><br />
<br />
1703- Abdul al-Wahhab is born at Najd, a main centre of Hanbali Islam in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula.<br />
<br />
1725
(circa) -Al-Wahhab (1703-1787) founds Muwahidun (unitarian) movement-
an attempt to purify Islam of medieval superstition, to stop the
translation of Sharia into jurisprudence and to get rid of the cult of
saints. The Muwahidun follow the Hanbali school as taught by Tarq al Din
ibn Taimiya (qv). Wahhab's oponnents call his followers 'Wahhabis', the
name that stuck.<br />
<br />
-Wahhab makes attendance at public prayer obligatory, forbids the building of minarets,<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Ibn Saud, Wahhabism and the Origins of the House of Saud</span><br />
<br />
-having failed to spread his movement, Al Wahhab allies himself with a tribal chieftain, Mohammed Ib Saud.<br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" height="393" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/First_Saudi_State_Big.png" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="481" /><br />
<br />
1726-65- Mohammed Ibn Saud, ruler of the Diraiya Emirate embraces Wahhabism, has his subjects convert on pain of death.<br />
<br />
1745- Muhammad Ibn Saud becomes ruler of Najd, the central plateau and oasis region of Arania, founds the House of Saud.<br />
<br />
-in
alliance with followers of Saud, Wahabbis mount a campaign against
idolatry, corruption and adultery. On the authority of the Hadith, they
ban dancing, music and poetry, silk, gold, ornaments and jewelery.<br />
<br />
1766-1803- Mohammed's son, Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, continues to uphold Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
1773- Abdul Aziz ibn Saud takes Riyadh.<br />
<br />
1802- in a campaign against the Shia, the Wahhabis attack the Shia holy city of Karbala.<br />
<br />
1810- the Whhabi Ibn Sauds ruule most of Arabia.<br />
<br />
1803-1814 Saud Ibn Abdul Aziz of the House of Saud tries to spread Wahhabism to the frontiers of Syria and Iraq.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Ottoman Sultan sends the Egyptian Pasha to Crush Wahhabism.</span><br />
<br />
-the Ottoman Sultan is outrages by what he sees as descecration of the holy pplaces of Arabi by the Sauds and their Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
1814-18- Sent by hte sultan, Muhammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, crushes the Wahhabist movement and executes Abdullah Ibn Saud.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Salafism</span><br />
<br />
1838-97- Jamal al-din Afghani. Helps develop Salafism- an Islamic ideology based on the example of the <span style="font-style: italic;">salaf- </span>the
ancestors of early Islam. He promotes the Pan-Islam movement in an
attempt to revive a mythical 'pure' Islam free of ethnic and political
rivalries.<br />
<br />
1849-1905- Muhammad Abdu- a follower of Afghani (b. 1838) emphasized the influence of the Salaf on Sharia law.<br />
<br />
1865-1935-
Muhammad Rashid Rida, follower of Abdu (b. 1849) researched what
Mohammed and 'the pious ancestors' had done and taught so that it could
be applied to contemporary conditions. He preferred the Salaf to the
four Sunni legal schools.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Fall and Revival of Wahhabism</span><br />
<br />
1881- House of Saud expelled from the Riyadh region. But it revivies under Abdul Rahman Ibn Al Saud and spreads Wahhabism<br />
<br />
1891- Abdul Rahman Ibn Al Saud of the House of Saud is overthrown at Diraiya by the House Of Rashid which has Ottoman backing.<br />
<br />
1902 -Abdul Aziz
ibn Abdul Rahman al Saud re-conquers the Najd from the Ottomans,
reviviing Wahhabism militarily and politically through the Ikhwan
Wahhabist movement. Wahabbis mount new attacks on hypocrites, laxity,
non-blievers. The criteria for belief is strict adherecne to the Sharia.<br />
<br />
1905-6- Abdul Aziz Ibn Abdul Rahman takes east central Arabia.<br />
<br />
1913-
Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, commander of the Whhabist Ikhwan army invades the
Shia region of Al-Hasa and attempts to impose Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
<br />
1920s- Salafis teach that since Mohammed was chosen by the community, leadership of Islam cannot be hereditary.<br />
<br />
1925-
Ibn Saud's Ikhwan Wahhabists destroy the Jannat al Baghi cemetery in
Medina, a Shia holy place where the daughter of the Prophet and the 3nd,
4th, 5th and 6th Shia imams are buried.<br />
<br />
1926- The Ikhwan resorts to the systematic killing of Shia.<br />
<br />
1927-
May 20- British lay down treaty of Jeddah giving the Hijaz and Jajd to
Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud. The Ikhwan, sends a Wahhabi recolt against Ibn Saud
for using telephone,s radios, cars etc.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Saudi Domestication of Wahhabism.</span><br />
<br />
1928- Muslim Brotherhood founded by Hassan al Banna in Egypt for moral and social reform.<br />
<br />
1930s-
House of Saud becomes rich on oil wealth, moderates its belief in
Wahhabism; the pogroms against the Shia are stopped; instead the Shia
suffer discrimination and marginalization.<br />
<br />
1932- the vast desert region whose heart is the Najd bcomes the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
-in Mecca, the Supreme Religious Council continues to be the official head of Wahabbism.<br />
<br />
<b>Uprising against Saudis; beginning of Careers of Osama Bin Laden and Ayman Zawahiri. </b><br />
<br />
1978- Ayman Zawahiri graduates as as a surgeon from Cairo's University's medical school.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden graduates with a degree in civil engineering from King Abdul Aziz University in Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
1979-
armed uprising against rulers of Saudi Arabia at the Grand Mosque-
assisted by Salafis from Kuwait. The young engineering graduate, Bin
laden, regards them as true Muslims. Salafis have since become active in
Kuwait politics.<br />
<br />
1979- Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin sign the Egyptian-Istaeli peace Treaty<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>.</b> </span>But his new peace costs Egypt membership in the Arab League.<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
-due to the unpopularity of the treaty at home, Sadat becomes increasingly autocratic.<br />
<br />
<b>Roots of the Al Nusra Front.</b><br />
<br />
1980-<span style="font-size: small;"> Abu Musab al Sur (</span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">aka Mustafa Setmariam Nasar and the</span>
intellectual godfather of Al Nusra) joins the Combatant Vanguard
organization, a radical offshoot of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood which
is at the forefront in the Islamic uprising in Hama, Syria.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Abdullah Azzam's 'Bureau of Service' in Pakistan for Afghan Jihad- antecedent to Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
1980- Abdullah Azzam founds Maktab al Khidmat (Bureau of Service) in Peshawar, Pakistan.<br />
<br />
-Pakistani
ISI and American CIA camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border join in
training non-Afhgan Mujehadeen to fight the Soviets in Afghanistan. They
use US army training manuals translated into Urdu, Arabic and Persian,
stressing nationalism and Islam.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden visits Peshawar and lobbies family and friends to support the anti-Soviet jihad in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
-Osama
Bin Laden goes back to Saudi Arabia, raises large sums from family
connections and returns to Pakistan with members of the family business,
the Saudi Binlandin Group.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden and Tyamiyya</b><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #373e4d;">Osama often cited Ibn Taymiyyah in his sermons and communiqués. On one occasion he said:</span><br style="color: #373e4d;" /><span style="color: #373e4d;">The
most important religious duty – after belief itself – is to ward off
and fight the enemy aggressor. Šayḫ al-Islam (Ibn Taymiyyah), may Allāh
have mercy upon him, said: “to drive off the enemy aggressor who
destroys both religion and the world – there is no religious duty more
important than this, apart from belief itself. This is an unconditional
rule.” -http://www.shiapac.org/2015/02/07/from-ibn-e-taymiyyah-to-daish-isisisil-by-sidq-miqal/</span></b><br />
<br />
<i>thanks to BBC Timelines and: </i><br />
<i>TheIndependent on Sunday </i><br />
<i>http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/timeline-al-qaeda-linked-terrorists-move-closer-establishing-islamic </i><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23283079 </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Wikipedia, </span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf">http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.understandingwar.org/">http://www.understandingwar.org/</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/04/al-qaeda-jabhat-al-nusra-merge.html</span></div>
<br />
<i> http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/10895006/Timeline-How-al-Qaeda-regained-its-hold-in-Iraq.html </i><br />
<i> -http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/05/02/f-al-qaeda-timeline.html</i><br />
<i><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">- Infoplease.com</a> <a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu</a> </i></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-38912653584589840392016-03-10T18:31:00.002-08:002021-12-08T16:53:29.140-08:00TIMELINE FOR ISIS OR 'THE ISLAMIC CALIPHATE.' <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b>TIMELINE FOR ISIS OR 'THE ISLAMIC CALIPHATE.' </b><br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi, the Progenitor of ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
1999:<b> </b>Jordanian Sunni militant Abu Mussab al-Zarqawi flees country after a failed hotel bombing and moves terror group, Tawhid and Jihad, to Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
<b>Syrian forerunners to Al Nusra.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2000 -Syrian Jihadists fighting alongside Al Qaeda leader Zarqawi in Herat, Afghanistan. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2002- Al Qaeda operative Musab al Zarqawi arrives in Iraq and founds Hai al Jamià Baghdad. Syrians who had been with Zarqawi in
Herat, Afghanistan are sent to build network branches in Syria and
Lebanon. Zarqawi would later exercise control from Iraq.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Al Nusra and Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b> </span><br />
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">2003- US Invasion of Iraq: "The link between al-Nusra and the AQI is logical and should not be
surprising. Al-Nusra is formed of fighters who took part in the
post-2003 armed campaign against US forces in Iraq, jihadists who
essentially crossed into Iraq from Syria to commit terrorist atrocities
against US and Iraqi targets. Most of AQI's (Al Qaeda in Iraq) fighters were foreign
jihadists from neighbouring countries, in particular Syria. Al-Nusra's
leader, Jawlani, has himself acknowledged that he fought in Iraq
alongside AQI."- Rusi.org, April, 2013.</span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-size: small;">Syria becomes the pipeline for sending jihadists into Iraq for the Zarqawi network, with safe houses kept by Syrian jihadists.</span> </b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
August- Embryonic Al Qaeda in Iraq begins a campaign of suicide bombing.<br />
<br />
<b>Abu Musab al Zarqawi prepares to lead Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b><br />
<br />
2004-
Feb 9- US discovers plot for Al Qaeda entry into Iraq by Abu Musab al
Zarqawi and plans to turn Sunni and Shia against one another.<br />
<br />
2004: April Zarqawi renames his group al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), pledges
allegiance to Osama bin Laden, and steps up a deadly campaign against
U.S. and Iraqi targets. AQI’s ranks swell as Arab jihadists enter the
country to fight against the U.S., and the group also becomes notorious
for abducting foreigners and filming their execution. </div>
<br />
<b>Zarqawi's Allegiance to Bin laden.</b><br />
<br />
2004 -Oct- Abu Musab Al Zarqawi, leader of "Monotheism and Jihad" swears allegiance to Osama Bin Laden.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">-2005- Abu Musab
al-Sur, noted jihadi theorist followed by Al Nusra- " al-Suri was
arrested in Pakistan (2005), but for some reason was released and
handed over to Syria when the rebel uprising began (2011). It is
believed that
he freely resides somewhere within Syria’s borders and his teachings are
heavily influencing the strategies of the Al Nusra Front".- SOFREP,
March 24, 2013.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-Zaraqawi's Al Qaeda in Iraq becomes the Mujahedeen Shura Council after various armed factions are integrated.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2005:<b> </b> Senior AQI figure Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim Ali al-Badri (aka
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, aka Abu Du’a) – later described by Iraqi law
enforcement as an Islamic law PhD, and the group’s “spiritual leader”
during this period – is arrested and held at the U.S. military-run Camp
Bucca in southern Iraq. (Reports differ on whether he was held for one,
four or five years, and details of his release remain hazy.) </span></div>
<br />
-violence
escalates in Iraq, some of it sectarian, most of it still involving the
US military campaign against allied Sunni, Baathist and Al Qaeda
militants.<br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi killed in targeted US air attack near Baghdad.</b><br />
<br />
2006- June 7- Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al Zarqawi is killed in a targeted US air strike northeast of Baghdad.<br />
<br />
After Zarqawi’s death in 2006, ISI was almost destroyed by US forces and
Sunni tribes revolting against its brutal violence. To save themselves,
Raheem said, ISI’s inner circle decided that the group needed to
broaden its ranks: revolutionary Islamist credentials were no longer
essential – if you could recite a few lines of the Qur’an and grow a
beard, you could sign up. The former Ba’athists, who had run Iraq for
decades, were invaluable new recruits. (the Guardian)<br />
<br />
<b>ISI before ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Al Zawi heads Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Oct. 2006: AQI renames itself Islamic State of Iraq, and its
leader is identified as Hamid Dawud al-Zawi (aka Abu-Omar al-Baghdadi),
an Iraqi. </span><br />
<br />
2006-
Oct 6- rhe Islamic State Of Iraq (ISI) founded
as an umbrella group for Sunni militant organizations including Al
Qaeda. A<span style="font-size: small;">fter the death of Zarqawi, Abu Hamza al-Muhajir and </span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Hamid Dawud al-Zawi</span> (AKA Abu Omar
al-Baghdadi) take the lead of Al Qaeda in Iraq. </span><br />
<br />
-"Abu Hamza al-Muhajir, to this day considered by ISIS as one of its
founding fathers, was an Al-Qaeda operative of Egyptian origin, born in
1968, and was close to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. In 1982 he joined the
Egyptian jihadi organization headed by Ayman al-Zawahiri and was
sentenced to death by Egypt in 1994 (apparently in absentia). Between
2001 and 2002 he underwent training in Afghanistan where he met Abu
Musab al-Zarqawi. He specialized in preparing IEDs used in Afghanistan
and Iraq...: -Crethiplethi-<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<br />
2007- <span style="font-size: small;">Syrian government cracks down on the late
Zarqawi`s Syrian jihadists and safe houses. The fighters leave Syria for
refuge in Iraq.</span><br />
<br />
<b>Iraq US troop surge against Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
2007: Anbar-based tribal “awakening” campaign against ISI (AQI) and
other militants and “surge” of troop reinforcements sent in by
President Bush helps to stem the tide of violence, marking a turning
point in the Iraq conflict.-U.S.
General Petraeus adopts sophisticated, modern counterinsurgency methods
against Sunni insurgents as part of the troop surge. US marines make
tactical alliances with Sunni Sheikhs and other former nsurgents in
Anbar province who are tired of al Qaeda's excesses and violations of
Islam. The Anbar Salvation Front becomes the first of several local
Sunni paramilitary organizations to aly itself with the U.S..<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2008- having alienated Sunnis in Iraq and driven their
fighters into the arms of the Americans, Al Qaeda changes its strategy
and rhetoric to attract local support. Al Nusra's local effectiveness
in Syria is an indirect result. </span><br />
<br />
-Oct 5- Abu Qaswarah, second in command of ISI (Al Qaeda in Iraq) is killed by US military in Mosul.<br />
<br />
2009- December- the Islamic State of Iraq, sometimes called an
al Qaeda franchise, claims responsibility for a mass of bombings in
Baghdad killing 127, as well as other killings in August and October
killing 240. <br />
<br />
<br />
2010- April 18- leader of ISI
or Al Qaeda in Iraq, Al Zawi or Abu Omar al Baghdadi, killed outside
Tikrit. Al-Badri, viewed as secretive and ambitious, is promoted to the
leadership.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;">May
16, 2010-Al Badri close to Abu Omar al-Baghdadi, the founder of the
Islamic State of Iraq succeeds him as emir of ISI after Omar’s death. </span><br />
<br />
"Since its effective creation in 2003, under the leadership of Abu Musab
al-Zarqawi, ISI had been happy to use al-Qaida’s brand name and its
money, but often ignored pleas for closer communication with central
command – even when they came from Bin Laden himself. In 2010, they
crossed a line: ISI appointed a new leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,
without prior approval from al-Qaida, whose senior leaders knew almost
nothing about the man – where he had come from, his military experience,
whether he could be trusted." http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Syria- the Al Nusra Front- Independant from Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
Aug. 2011: Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri threatens on an AQI website to carry out 100
attacks across Iraq to avenge the death of bin Laden three months
earlier.<br />
<br />
Oct.
2011: State Department lists al-Badri as a specially designated global
terrorist, offers a $10 million reward for information leading to his
location.<br />
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">2011- Syrian Jihadists begin to return from Iraq for the Syrian uprising. Some form the 'Al Nusra Front.' </span>"By this time, ISI had been pushed to the brink of collapse by US and
Iraqi forces – but the Syrian civil war gave the group a chance to
rebuild. As the conflict began to intensify, Baghdadi quietly dispatched
one of his junior officers, Abu Muhammad al-Joulani,
across the border in late 2011 to take advantage of the chaos. Equipped
with funds, weapons, and some of ISI’s best soldiers, Joulani’s group –
which would soon be known as the Nusra Front – quickly became the most
formidable fighting force in Syria." http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Oct- in Homs and Rif Dimashq jihadists discuss Al Nusra's
founding and objectives. </span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">.</span><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="st" data-hveid="58"> 'Al Nusra' means "The Support Front for the People of the Levant [Greater Syria]" </span></span>At its founding, it had no affiliation with Al
Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2011- Dec.- veteran jihadists of deceased Al Qaeda in
Iraq leader Abu Musab al Zarqawi, leave Iraq, crossing the border to
Syria to join in the Arab Spring rebellion against the Assad regime.
Jabhat Al Nusra (JN) claims to fight on behalf of the Syria's
increasingly oppressed Sunni majority and against Syria's ruling Shia
Alawite sect and its allies which include Shia Iran and the Shia
Hezbollah organization and militia in Lebanon. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Dec. 23- suicide car bombs kill 44 in Damascus. Al Nusra claims responsibility.</span>
<br />
<br />
2012- <span style="font-size: small;">-in late January, ``the jihadist group Jabhat al-Nusra li Ahl Ash-Sham, or
the Support Front for the People of Syria, announced its formation and
goal to bring down the regime of President Bashar Assad.`` -TIME.</span><br />
<br />
<b>Syria: Al Nusra (JN).</b><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2102- Jan- al Nusra meetings continue in Rif Damashq and Homs.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">
2012- Jan 6- Al Nusra suicide bombing carried out by Abu al-Baraa al-Shami in Midan District of Damascus kills 26. </span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">
2012- Jan 23- In its inaugural video Al Nusra claims an attack on
a government security installation in Idlib. "We are Syrian mujahideen,
back from various jihad fronts to restore
God's rule on the Earth and avenge the Syrians' violated honour and
spilled blood," a masked man declared in the video. (BBC)</span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"> <b>AQI leader al Badri helps to establish al Nusra.</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012:<b> </b>Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri starts focusing attention on the jihad against
President Bashar Assad’s regime in Syria, where he reportedly helps to
establish an al-Qaeda affiliate, the al-Nusra Front, under the
leadership of a former Zarqawi deputy. </span>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- March 17- two car bombs in Damasucs kill 27.</span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- March-April- JN
expands after many leading jihadists from Lebanese Fatah al-Islam and
Palestinian groups joined the leadership and were able to secure
sponsorship of key jihadi ideologues including Sheikh Abu al-Mundhir
al-Shinqiti, Sheikh Abu Muhammad. JN may be responsible for bombings
carried out on this date.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- May 29- On 29 May 2012, a mass execution was discovered near the
eastern city of Deir ez-Zor. The unidentified corpses of 13 government
soldiers had been discovered shot to death execution-style. JN (Al Nusra) later
claimed responsibility.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- June 17- Walid Ahmad al-Ayesh, described by Syrian authorities as
the "right hand" of the Al-Nusra Front, was killed when Syrian
authorities discovered his hiding place. He was reportedly responsible
for the making of car bombs that were used to attack Damascus in the
previous months. (Wikipedia)</span>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- June 27- JN blows up a pro-government TV station in the town of Drousha, just south of the capital Damascus.</span><br />
<br />
2012- July- al-Baghdadi released an audio statement online announcing
that the group was returning to former strongholds from which US troops
and the Sons of Iraq had driven them in 2007 and 2008.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ap22July12_109-0"> </sup>He also declared the start of a new offensive in Iraq called <i>Breaking the Walls</i>, aimed at freeing members of the group held in Iraqi prisons.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ap22July12_109-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant#cite_note-ap22July12-109"></a></sup>
Violence in Iraq had begun to escalate in June 2012, primarily with
AQI's car bomb attacks, and by July 2013, monthly fatalities exceeded
1,000 for the first time since April 2008. (Wikipedia)<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>Al Nusra in Syria.</b></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- July 15 (circa) JN executes popular TV news presenter Mohammed al-Saeed</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- August 12- a JN leader, Wael Mohammad al-Majdalawi, killed in a government operation in Damascus.</span></div>
</div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Progress of Al Nusra.</b> </span> <br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-JN seized three army checkpoints around Saraqeb at the end of
October 2012, forcing the Syrian Army to withdraw from the area the next
day. In the battle, 28 Syrian soldiers were killed as well as five
Nusra fighters. Some of the captured soldiers were summarily executed
after being called "Assad dogs". (Wikipedia)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- early November- car bomb kills 2 in a rural development center in Sahl al-Ghab in Hama.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>-Islamist militias in Aleppo,
including the Al-Nusra and Al-Tawhid groups refuse to join the
Coalition of opposition groups denouncing it as a "conspiracy"</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">-suicide bombing in Mezzeh neighbourhood of Damascus kills
11 people.</span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">-by the end of 2012- Al
Nusra units have become the shock troops of the armed Syrian
opposition, the best armed, funded, trained and disciplined of all the
rebel groups, Al Nusra can turn the tide wherever rebel lines run into
trouble.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> Dec. 11: The Obama administration declares Al Nusra with alleged ties to al-Qaida as a terrorist organization. <span style="font-size: small;"> A group of 29 opposition groups, including both fighting
units and civilian organizations signed an online petition calling for
demonstrations in its support.</span> </span> <br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. -US lists al-Nusra as a terrorist organisation, A group of 29 opposition groups, including both fighting
units and civilian organisations signed an online petition calling for
demonstrations in its support. </span> </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. Al Nusra reported to have entered Lebanon:
"Senior Lebanese security officials have confirmed that there has been a
noticeable increase in jihadist elements associated with al-Qaeda within
Lebanon. This increase is naturally linked to armed elements in Syria
and the stated and covert positions taken by some Lebanese political
forces towards the conflict in Damascus. However, the same security
apparatus has revealed in an exclusive interview that their
investigations have determined that the most recent statement made by Al
Nusra was authored in north Lebanon. The email address responsible for
posting the statement on the internet was traced to Tripoli, the capital
of the North Governorate and close to the Syrian border." Al-Monitor,
Dec. 24, 2102.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. 23- JN declares "no-fly-zone" over Aleppo, using 23 mm and 57 mm anti-aircraft guns.</span></div>
<br />
<br />
<b>Syria: Al Nusra</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2013- January- JN takes
over the distribution of flour in Aleppo in the wake of the hoarding
and sale of flour by the Syrian Free Army. "The Nusra Front is outside
the FSA and has a reputation for discipline and honesty." BBC.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2013- February- Al Nusra fighters were involved in fighting in Safira
with regime reinforcements, preventing these forces from reaching their
destination of the city of Aleppo. (Al Jazeera)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">"Danish reports say at least 30 Danish Muslims have gone to fight with al
Nusra in Syria. Senior European intelligence officials have told me
that there is a wave of angry young Muslim men from all across Western
Europe going to Syria to join al Qaeda and fight Assad." The Daily Beast, Feb 23, 2013.</span></div>
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">-As of early 2013 al-Nusra is estimated to have around 5000 members. (Wikipedia) </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">2013- March- JN has claimed responsibility for 57 of the 69 suicide attacks in Syria during the conflict. (Wikipedia).<sup> </sup></span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">2013- March 13- </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Anti-regime
activists took to the streets of rebel-held Mayadeen in eastern Syria
on Wednesday for a third straight day to demand that jihadist Al-Nusra
Front fighters leave the town.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">March, 2013-<b> </b>Jihadists
rebels control large parts of the three provinces that make up
northeastern Syria and are working to install the foundations for an Islamic
state.Extremist rebels — mostly from large armed groups Ahrar al Sham
and Jabhat al Nusra took the provincial capital of Raqqa, Syria’s sixth
largest city and the first to fall into rebel hands. </span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2013- March -Fighters with ISI and the Nusra Front enter the north-eastern city of Raqqa.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Zawahiri Defends al Qaeda's Al Nusra from claims of merger by ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
2013 April- Baghdadi declares ISI has absorbed the Nusra Front to form a larger
entity called Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, operating across
Iraq and Syria. The Nusra Front's Joulani denies it has accepted the merger,
sparking a leadership rift within al-Qaeda.<br />
<br />
2013, April 9- Al Nusra's "Joulani was such a powerful
commander in his own right that Baghdadi feared he was on the verge of
obtaining Zawahiri’s support to elevate himself as the leader of an
independent al-Qaida branch in Syria. On 8 April 2013, Baghdadi launched a pre-emptive strike – whose
consequences would rip apart the banner of unity that had long presided
over the jihadi movement. In an audio recording released online,
Baghdadi declared that the Nusra Front and ISI would officially become
one organisation. Nusra’s battle-stained banners, which hung over their
newly captured headquarters in Syrian cities such as Raqqa, Aleppo and
Homs would be replaced. The merged organisation would be called the
Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, or more simply Isis. The rebrand was
effective immediately. Two days later, Joulani replied with his own
audio message. He rejected Baghdadi’s “invitation” to merge – and
pledged an oath of loyalty directly to Zawahiri, appealing to the
“sheikh of jihad” to resolve the dispute."http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
Within 24 hours, Zawahiri dispatched a private message urging calm.
He said he wanted both commanders to send him representations before he
would rule on this spat, which had, thanks to the internet, become
embarrassingly public. Baghdadi made it clear that he was not willing to
compromise: in a personal message, he warned Zawahiri that any hint of
support for the “traitor” would have “no cure except the spilling of
more blood”. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
May, 2013- Al Qaeda's Zawahiri orders Baghdadi to restrict operations to Iraq.<br />
<br />
May 2013: Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri declares merger of AQI and al-Nusra under the
name Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), or alternatively, the
Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The perceived power grab
is rejected by al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri, who declares that
al-Nusra is the only al-Qaeda affiliate engaged in the anti-Assad
campaign. Al-Badri ignores al-Zawahiri’s instructions to focus on Iraq,
and instead continues operations in both countries.<br />
<br />
"On 23 May, Zawahiri delivered his verdict: Isis, which had been
created without prior approval, would have to be “dissolved”; Baghdadi
was ordered to restrict his operations to Iraq. Meanwhile, his former
junior, Joulani, would become the leader of al-Qaida’s official branch
in Syria. Both men, Zawahiri added, had a year to prove themselves,
after which al-Qaida central would decide on what measures to take next.
Like any suspended sentence, it was both an offer of redemption and a
threat: Baghdadi could prosper by playing nicely within the new rules,
or lose his position within al-Qaida entirely. Finally, to ensure his
accord was adhered to peacefully, Zawahiri dispatched an emissary, Abu
Khalid al-Suri, in whom he vested the power to resolve any further
disputes." http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
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<br />
-One
former senior member of ISI who did not want to be named told the
Guardian that Baghdadi was incensed by Zawahiri’s letter: he was shocked
to be treated as an equal to Joulani and ordered to stay out of the
Syrian conflict into which he had invested so much. According to
Maqdisi, Baghdadi contemptuously dismissed Zawahiri’s envoy. “Suri told
Baghdadi, if you stick to these points and you go back to Iraq, I will
not make this order public,” Maqdisi said. “Instead, Isis refused the
orders, and then started attacking Zawahiri – saying, ‘Al-Qaida is gone,
it’s burned out.’” http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
<b>Aharar Al Sham Distances itself from Al Nusra; Al Nusra Splits.</b><br />
<br />
From The Economist: "Hitherto the most prominent of the extreme Islamist groups has been
Jabhat al-Nusra, which may have 7,000 or so fighters. But recently it
has been bogged down in a power struggle with al-Qaeda in Iraq, led by
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. After Jabhat al-Nusra’s leaders, led by Abu
Muhammad al-Golani, refused to submit to his rule, the group split: a
more extreme branch merged with the Iraqi brethren, forming the Islamic
State of Iraq and al-Sham. It has recently clashed with other Syrian
groups, something Ahrar al-Sham has so far avoided. As Jabhat al-Nusra’s
clout has weakened, Ahrar al-Sham’s has grown stronger." (July 20, 2013)<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS strengthened with jailbreak.</b><br />
<br />
July, 2013- The new joint Syrian-Iraqi al-Qaeda offshoot, known as the Islamic State
of Iraq and al Shams (ISIS), gains a major coup when it breaks nearly
500 fellow militants from Abu Ghraib jail in Baghdad. That ISIS can
break its way into what is supposedly the most secure jail in the
country shows how well-organised it has become. Many escapees rejoin
ISIS's ranks. <br />
<br />
2013- July Ahrar Al Sham (ISIS)<b> </b>now numbers about 15,000, the largest Jihadist umbrella group in Iraq.<b> </b>Some Ahrar al-Sham units that have been involved in heavy fighting
include the Qawafel al-Shuhada and Ansar al-Haqq Brigades (both in Khan
Sheikhoun, Idleb Province), the al-Tawhid wal-Iman Brigade (Maarrat
al-Noum an, Idleb Province), the Shahba Brigade (Aleppo City), the
Hassane bin Thabet Brigade (Darat Ezza, Aleppo Province), and the
Salahaddin and Abul-Fida Brigades (both in Hama City) (Wikipedia)<br />
<br />
2013-
Dec. ISIS captures a member of the Islamic Front -accusing him of
espionage- and tortures and murders him. "Within days, Syria’s major
rebel groups – including Nusra, the country’s
al-Qaida affiliate – banded together to declare war on Isis. Thousands
of militants were killed over the first few months of 2014, as battles
raged between Isis and the other rebel factions, with senior commanders
on both sides kidnapped, tortured and murdered. As their positions were
overrun, Isis was forced to retreat from western Syria. It began
consolidating its control over the east, the area closest to Iraq, and
the location of many of Syria’s oil fields. There, Nusra and Isis fought
viciously, in and around the city of Raqqa and along the banks of the
Euphrates."
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>War Between ISIS and Al Nusra</b><br />
<br />
Winter/spring 2014: ISIS/ISIL battles al-Nusra and other rebel
groups for control of territory across northern Syria. Thousands die in
this conflict within the wider Syrian civil war. The State Department
says the group likely makes up “a significant portion of the estimated
26,000 violent extremist fighters in Syria. <br />
<br />
<b>ISIS ATTACK ON FALLUJAH AND RAMADI</b><br />
<br />
Jan. 2014- ISIS sends gunmen into the cities of Fallujah and Ramadi, west of
Baghdad. The Iraqi army surrounds both cities but does not go for an
all-out assault for fear of large civilian casualties that would
alienate locals still further. Five months later, both cities remain
outside of Iraqi security forces' control.<br />
<br />
On 16 January 2014, Zawahiri’s envoy, Abu Khalid al-Suri, published a
message online. He tweeted that Isis was seeking to corrupt the jihad as
it had done in Iraq: militants should direct their bombs at the
infidels, he declared, not at their fellow jihadis. Seventeen days
later, Zawahiri played his final card: Isis was expelled from al-Qaida.<br />
<br />
Feb 3- Al Qaeda disowns ISIS, stating that its former affiliate “is not a branch of the al-Qaeda group [and
al-Qaeda] does not have an organizational relationship with it and is
not the group responsible for their actions.”<br />
<br />
<br />
"On 26
May 2014, (Al Qaeda Scholar)Maqdisi deemed the negotiations dead and, backed by
his fellow al-Qaida ideologues, issued a fatwa against Isis. “It has
become necessary that we tell the truth, after we exhausted
all the possibilities of advice and all hopes of making Isis return to
the path of truth,” Maqdisi wrote. The rebellious organisation, he
declared, had no “Islamic pretext”. Baghdadi, his commanders, and their
religious officials were “deviants” who had “disobeyed the orders of
their leaders and head scholars”. He instructed Isis’s soldiers to
defect to the Nusra Front, and decreed that no Islamic website should
host Isis messages."
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
June 5, 2014,<b> </b>ISIS/ISIL forces launch an attack against the Iraqi city of Samarra, but are expelled by Iraqi airstrikes.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS TAKES MOSUL, TIKRIT AND THE BAIJI REFINERY</b><br />
<br />
Jun. 9-10, 2014<b> </b>ISIS/ISIL forces capture control of most of Mosul,
Iraq’s second-largest city, and free hundreds of prisoners, including
some of its fighters. Iraqi forces reportedly flee. Prime Minister
Nouri al-Maliki declares a state of emergency.<br />
<br />
<br />
June 11, 2014- ISIS/ISIL forces take control of an oil refinery at
Baiji then move further down the highway to Baghdad and seize Tikrit,
just 95 miles north of the capital. Hundreds of thousands of people are
reported to have been displaced as a result of the fighting.<br />
<br />
<br />
June, 2014- ISIS takes over the cities of Mosul and Tikrit, also threatening
Baghdad. Five years from being all but vanquished, al-Qaeda's writ in
Iraq is as strong, if not stronger, as it was before. <br />
<br />
<b>ISIS DECLARES A CALIPHATE IN SYRIA AND IRAQ.</b> <br />
<br />
June 29, 2014- Isis declares a caliphate across controlled areas in Syria and Iraq
while calling for global allegiance. Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi declares
himself the leader – or caliph - of the 1.8 billion Muslims all over the
world.<br />
<br />
2014- July 2: Al-Baghdadi calls for all Muslims to gather to his new land and unite to “capture Rome” and own the world.<br />
<br />
2014 July 3: Isis takes control of al-Omar, Syria’s largest oil-field<br />
<br />
2015
July 5: Al-Baghdadi is recorded in his first public appearance, at the
Grand Mosque in Mosul, calling on all Muslims to obey him.<br />
<br />
2014- July 17: Isis claims to have killed 270 people after
seizing the Shaer gas field in Syria. Days later dozens of Iraqi
Christians leave after a warning by Isis that it will carry out a
similar attack if they do not convert to Islam.<br />
<br />
July 26: Isis blows up Jonah’s tomb, a holy site in Jewish heritage.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS TAKES SINJAR, MASSCRES YAZIDI CHRISTIANS. ENSLAVEMENT AND RAPE.</b> <br />
<br />
2014- August 3: Militants capture the city of Sinjar. They begin a
massacre that culminates in the deaths of over 5,000 men from the Yazidi
religious sect. Thousands of women are raped and sold into slavery.
200,000 Yazidi flee with as many as 50,000 becoming stranded on the
Sinjar Mountains surrounded by ISIS.<br />
<br />
August 6: Kurdish forces join the fight against Isis.<br />
<br />
<b>US BEGINS AIR STRIKES</b><br />
<br />
August 8: US
President Barack Obama authorizes the first air strikes, which
subsequently drop bombs outside the Kurdish city of Erbil, where Isis
movement had sparked a mass exodus.<br />
<br />
August 15: Isis massacres a Yazidi village in northern Iraq.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>BEHEADING OF JAMES FOLEY</b><br />
<br />
August 19:
Isis’ media arm uploads a video entitled “Message to America,” showing
the beheading of the American journalist and hostage James Foley. The
masked militant, who speaks with a British accent, demands the US ceases
air strikes.<br />
<br />
2014- August 29: The UK Home Secretary
Theresa May raises the UK terror level to ‘severe’ in response to the
conflict in Iraq and Syria.<br />
<br />
<b>BEHEADING OF STEVEN SOTLOFF</b> <br />
<br />
2014- Sept <b>2:</b> Isis uploads another video featuring the same
militant (now known by his tabloid monikor ‘Jihadi John’), this time
showing the beheading of another US journalist, Steven Sotloff.<br />
<br />
<b>FORMATION OF WESTERN COALITION AGAINST ISIS</b> <br />
<br />
Sept 5: The US announces the formation of a coalition to
“destroy the threat posed by Isis”. The ten-nation coalition comprises
of US, Britain, France, Germany, Canada, Australia, Turkey, Italy,
Poland and Denmark.<br />
<br />
-Sept 11: The CIA announces that Isis now has between 20,000 to 31,500 fighters.<br />
<br />
The US announces numerous Aran nations have agreed to support the coalition. <br />
<br />
Sept 13- ISIS launches an offensive on the northern Syrian city district of Kobane,
home to a city of the same name, meeting a strenuous resistance from
its predominantly Kurdish population. A four-month siege ensues. <br />
<br />
Sept 13:
Isis releases another video, showing the execution of British aid
worker David Haines by ‘Jihadi John’. The militant threatens to kill
another British hostage if the UK continues its ‘evil alliance with
America.’<br />
<br />
Sept- 22, 2014: Isis executes Iraqi human rights activist Samira Salih al-Nuaimi<br />
<br />
Sept 23: US warplanes bomb Isis fighters in Raqqa, a northern Syrian city claimed by Isis to be its capital.<br />
<br />
Sept 24: Isis-affiliated Algerian militant group Jund al-Khiilafah kidnap and behead a French tourist, Hervé Gourdel<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS RELEASES MORE VIDEOS OF WESTERN HOSTAGES</b><br />
<br />
Sept 29: Isis releases a video showing the kidnapped British
journalist John Cantlie in an orange jumpsuit reading a seemingly
scripted message criticising President Obama. <br />
<br />
Oct 3: Isis releases a video showing the beheading of the
British aid worker Alan Henning as they threaten to kill another, the
American aid worker Peter Kassig, also known as Abdul Rahman Kassig <br />
<br />
Oct 13- ISIS English-language propaganda magazine, Dabiq, calls on jihadi sympathisers to attack westerners "wherever they can be found."<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS IN BATTLE FOR KOHANI ON SYRIAN-TURKISH BORDER.</b> <br />
<br />
Oct 16: Isis is pushed back from the Syrian city of Kobani with help from US air strikes.<br />
<br />
Oct 20- a Canadian convert and IS sympathiser runs dwon two soldiers, killing one, with his car near Montreal.<br />
<br />
Oct 22- An Islamist gunmen kills a soldier<a href="http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ottawa-shooting-parliament-hill-gunman-shot-dead-1471321"> </a>guarding
the National War Memorial in Ottawa, before storming Canada's
parliament building. He is subsequently shot dead by security forces.<br />
<br />
Oct 29: Senior Australian figure and Isis recruiter Mohammad Ali Baryalei is reportedly killed in Syria.<br />
<br />
<hr />
<br />
<br />
2014- Nov. 3: The Iraqi government announces Isis has killed 322 members of the Albu Minr tribe during a series of executions.<br />
<br />
Nov. 8: Iraqi government officials claim that Isis leader al-Baghdadi is wounded in a coalition air strike near Mosul.<br />
<span class="inline-image w460 leftAligned">
</span><br />
Nov 13: A recording of al-Baghdadi surfaces as in which he
claims the US military-led campaign is failing and that the coalition of
“America and its allies are terrified, weak and powerless” and to
“light the Earth with fire under all the tyrants and their soldiers and
supporters.”<br />
<br />
Nov 16: The group claims to have beheaded American aid worker Peter Kassig along with a dozen Syrian soldiers.<br />
<span class="inline-image w460 leftAligned">
</span><br />
Nov 29: At least 40 fighters on both sides are killed in
the city of Kobani during a battle between Syrian Kurds and Isis
militants.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS LOSES SINJAR</b><br />
<br />
2014- Dec 19: Isis is pushed out of most of the Sinjar region of Iraq.<br />
<br />
Dec
15- a self-professed Muslim cleric with a criminal record for sexual
assault, takes 17 hostages at a Sydney café claiming to for ISIS. Two people and the attacker die after police storm the premises.<br />
<br />
Dec 21: The Sinjar offensive is considered a success with a Kurdish victory.<br />
<br />
Dec 24: Isis militants claim to shoot down and then capture
a Jordanian pilot in northern Syria. They demand the release of Sajida
al-Rishawi, an al-Qaeda prisoner held in Jordan over a failed suicide
bombing.<br />
<br />
2015- Jan 4: Isis attacks Saudi Arabia near the border city of Arar, killing four border guards.<br />
<br />
Jan 10: A video released shows Taliban fighters pledging allegiance to Isis.<br />
<br />
Jan 18: Isis releases about 250 Yazidis.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS BEHEADS JAPANESE HOSTAGE</b> <br />
<br />
2015-
Jan 20: The group demands a ransom of $200 million from Japan in
exchange for two Japanese hostages, Kenji Goto and Haruna Yokawa.<br />
<br />
Jan 24: A video is uploaded that seems to show Goto holding a photo of Yokawa, who has been beheaded.<br />
<br />
<b>KURDS TAKE KOHANE FROM ISIS</b><br />
<br />
Jan 26: Kurdish fighters take control of the Syrian border town of Kobane after fighting Isis for months.<br />
<br />
2015-
Jan 26- Renegade Taliban fightrs swear allegiance to Baghdadi and found
'The Islamic State in Afghanistan and Pakistan,' using Khorasan, the
ancient term for the Afghanistan region.<br />
<br />
Jan 31: A video is released showing the beheading of Kenji Goto by the British militant.<br />
<hr />
<br />
<b>ISIS RELEASES VIDEO OF JORDANIAN PILOT</b> <b>BURNED ALIVE IN A CAGE.</b><br />
<br />
2015-
Feb 3: Isis supporters post a video online of the captured Jordanian
military pilot Moath al-Kasasbeh being burned alive in a cage.<br />
<br />
Feb 5: The Jordanian military carries out a series of air strikes on Isis training centres and weapons depots.<br />
<br />
Feb 6: Isis claims a Jordanian air strike killed the American hostage Kayla Mueller.<br />
<br />
Feb 10: Kayla Mueller’s family announce she is dead after receiving confirmation from Isis.<br />
<br />
Feb 11: President Obama asks Congress to authorise use of military force against Isis.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS MOVES AGAINST EGYPTIAN CHRISTIANS.</b><br />
<br />
Feb 15: Libyan Isis militants release a video that appears to show the group beheading 21 Egyptian Christians.<br />
<br />
Feb 15- An IS sympathiser goes on a gun rampage in Copenhagen, Denmark, killing two, at freedom of speech event and a synagogue.<br />
<br />
Feb 15- IS Libyan branch releases footage showing the beheading of 21 Eguptian Christians on a beach.<br />
<br />
Feb 16: Egypt launches air strikes on Isis camps, training sites and weapon depots in retaliation for the beheadings.<br />
<br />
Feb 22: Isis releases a propaganda video of Kurdish Peshmerga troops in orange jumpsuits in cages.<br />
<br />
Feb 26:
The identity of terrorist known as ‘Jihadi John’ is revealed as
Mohammed Emwazi, a Kuwati-born Londoner.<br />
<br />
Feb 26- Isis also releases a video of
the destruction of historical artefacts in the Mosul Museum.<br />
<br />
2015- March 4: Isis releases images of a man thrown off a building as punishment for being gay.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS ACCEPTS ALLEGIANCE FROM BOKO HAREM IN NIGERIA.</b> <br />
<br />
March 12: Boko Harem, the Islamist militant group in northern Nigeria pledges allegiance to Isis. Isis accepts.<br />
<br />
March
18- ISIS claims responsibility for a deadly attack at the Bardo Museum
in Tunis, in which 22 people, including British, French and Italian
tourists are killed.<br />
<br />
2015- March 20: Isis takes responsibility for a suicide bombing that kills 137 people and wounds over 300 in Yemen.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS US TUNIS TO CROSS INTO LIBYA</b><br />
<br />
March 24: Isis uses the town of Tataouine, a Tunisian town
that inspired the Star Wars city of Tattooine, as a waypoint to cross
into Libya.<br />
<br />
March 25: US-led coalition begins air strikes on the Iraqi city of Tikrit.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS LOSES TIKRIT TO IRAQI ARMY</b> <br />
<hr />
2015- April 1: Iraq declares victory over Isis in Tikrit.<br />
<br />
Apr 12: Iraqi government declares Tikrit free of Isis forces.<br />
<br />
Apr 18:
Fighters in Isis’ Wilayat Khorasan province claim responsibility for a
suicide bombing in Afghanistan that kills 33 people and injures over
100.<br />
<br />
Apr 19: Isis produces a video showing the
shooting and beheadings in Libya of two groups of prisoners, who are identified
as 30 Ethiopian Christians.<br />
<br />
2015- May 1: It is reported that Al-Baghdadi is recovering in Mosul<br />
<br />
May 2: Isis kills 300 Yazidi captives in Iraq.<br />
<br />
<b>Afghanistan</b><br />
<br />
April- newly arrivied ISIS and the Taliban declare Jihad against one another<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>ISIS CLAIMS FARLAND, TEXAS ATTACK.</b><br />
<br />
May 5: The group claims an attack in Garland, Texas, where two gunmen opened fire on a contest to draw the Prophet Mohamed.<br />
<br />
May 13: Abu Alaa Afri, the deputy leader of Isis, is killed in US-led coalition air strike.<br />
<br />
2015 May 16: US Special Ops kill Abu Sayaaf, a senior Isis commander, and capture his wife.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS CAPTURES RAMADI</b> <br />
<br />
May 17: Isis seizes the city of Ramadi in Iraq. Over 500 people are killed.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS CAPTURES PALMYRA</b><br />
<br />
May 20: Isis takes control of the ancient city of Palymyra, Syria.<br />
<br />
May 28: The group claims it has seized the Libyan Air Force airport in Sirte.<br />
<hr />
2015 June 1: A
militant posts a “selfie” online, which leads the US military to
identify and perform air strikes on a compound, destroying it in the
process.<br />
<br />
June 2: Isis closes the gates of a dam in Ramadi.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS BEHEADS 10 TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN</b><br />
<br />
June 7: Isis captures 10 Taliban militants in Afghanistan and beheads them.<br />
<br />
<b>KURDS TAKE POINTS IN NORTHERN SYRIA FROM ISIS</b> <br />
<br />
June 15: Syrian Kurdish fighters take the town of Tell Abyad from Isis.<br />
<br />
June 23: Kurds take back a key base north of Raqqa from Isis fighters<br />
<br />
On the same day, a video emerges showing a group of hostages being
split into three, before some are executed using a rocket-propelled
grenade, others are drowned in a cage and the rest are beheaded using
electrical charges.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS TAKES PALMYRA</b> <br />
<br />
Militants begin destroying ancient monuments in the ancient city of Palmyra.<br />
<br />
June 26- Isis claims the killing of 38 people in a shooting at a Tunisian beach resort
and for a separate suicide bombing that kills at least 25 Shiite
worshipers in a Kuwait mosque.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>The Fight for Al Hasakah, Syria.</b><br />
<br />
2015- 30 May- after ISIL forces suffered collapse
in the western Al-Hasakah province, they launched an offensive on the
Syrian government-held portion of Al-Hasakah city. Although the Kurdish
YPG initially stayed out of the conflict, they eventually joined the
conflict on 5 June, after ISIL reached the southern gate of the city,
after a decision that the YPG would be recognized as a primary combatant
force in the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pushes_30-0"> (Wikipedia)</sup><br />
<br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pushes_30-0"> </sup>2015- 8 June- ISIL was pushed back from Al-Hasakah city, and Syrian
Army forces were able to establish a 12 kilometer (7.46 mi) buffer zone
around the southern portion of Al-Hasakah.<br />
<br />
<b>Afghanistan- ISIS and the death of Mullah Omar.</b><br />
<br />
July 31- Death of Taliban leader Mullah Omar, gives possible boost to ISIS over leaderless Taliban factions. <br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<br />
11 August. ISIS loses Al Hasakah to Syrian Government forces. The US-led Coalition conducted an airstrike on a village
east of Al-Hasakah city, blowing up a building that ISIL was using for a
meeting, which killed over 50 ISIL militants.
On 12 August, ISIL reportedly publicly shot and executed more than 90
of its own members as punishment for escaping the battlefield. ISIL
claimed that the fighters' desertion was the main cause of ISIL's loss
at the Battle of Al-Hasakah.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85"> </sup>It
was reported on 16 August that ISIL had executed four more of its own
fighters for allegedly collaborating with the Coalition. (Wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Aug 19- Militants from Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) beheaded one of
Syria's most prominent antiquities scholars in the ancient town of
Palmyra, then hung his body from one of the town's Roman columns, Syrian
state media and an activist group said Wednesday. The killing of 81-year-old Khaled al-Asaad was the latest atrocity
perpetrated by the militant group, which has captured a third of both
Syria and neighbouring Iraq and declared a self-styled "caliphate" on
the territory it controls.<br />
<br />
Aug 24- Islamic State militants have released photos showing what appears to be
the destruction of the ancient Baal Shamin temple in Syria's Palmyra, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site recently captured and vandalized by the
jihadists.<br />
<br />
2015- Aug 30- ISIS blows up 2000 year old Temple of Bel in Palmyra.<br />
<br />
<i>thanks to BBC Timelines and: </i><br />
<i>TheIndependent on Sunday </i><br />
<i>http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/timeline-al-qaeda-linked-terrorists-move-closer-establishing-islamic </i><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23283079 </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Wikipedia, </span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf">http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.understandingwar.org/">http://www.understandingwar.org/</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/04/al-qaeda-jabhat-al-nusra-merge.html</span></div>
<br />
<i> http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/10895006/Timeline-How-al-Qaeda-regained-its-hold-in-Iraq.html </i><br />
<i> -http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/05/02/f-al-qaeda-timeline.html</i><br />
<i><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">- Infoplease.com</a> <a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu</a></i><br />
<br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-14353317022383038442016-03-10T18:30:00.002-08:002016-03-10T18:30:39.835-08:00TIMELINE FOR RADICAL ISLAM, AL QAEDA AND ISIS OR 'ISLAMIC STATE' from 780 BC-2014 AD<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">TIMELINE FOR RADICAL ISLAM, AL QAEDA AND ISIS OR 'ISLAMIC STATE' from 630-2015 AD</span><br />
<br />
<i> </i>630-
Battle of Hunayn, Mohammed defeats the Hawazin Bedouins near Mecca. One
of his followers, Huruqus ibn Zuhair, criticizes Mohammed for offering
booty in return for converting to Islam. Mohammed predicts that he will
betray Islam. <br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
<br />
<b>The Rashidun Caliphate (632-661): Ali and Abu Bakr: the split between Shia and Sunni.</b><img class="irc_mi" src="http://apworldwiki2011-12.weebly.com/uploads/9/9/9/6/9996001/1567867_orig.jpg" height="301" style="margin-top: 46px;" width="315" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
<span class="irc_su" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;">The Prophet Muhammed surrounded by the four Rashidun Caliph's</span><br />
<br />
<b>The First Caliph- Abu Bakr 632-634</b> <br />
<br />
-632-
3 months before Mohammed's death, on his last pilgrimmage to mecca,
Shiites believe that he stopped his caravan by a pond and said, "Do I
not have more to say to you than all the others?" Followers say 'yes'.
Then he says, "All those whom I command shall also be commanded by Ali."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
-but
Abu Bakr, Mohammed's companion had been asked by the prophet to lead
the prayers before his death, making him virtual leader.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
-but after Mohammed's death in 632- many refuse to recongize Ali.</div>
<br />
-Though Ali had been a close deputy and a military commander, Abu Bakr (632-634) became the Caliph or successor.<br />
<br />
-637- Arab Muslims take Mesopotamia from the Persian Sassinids.<br />
<br />
<b>The Second Caliph- Omar 634-644</b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
-Abu Bakr
is succeeded by Omar (634-644) and the third Caliph Osman- (644-656) followers from
the old Arab aristocracy of Mecca- recent allies of Mohammed. Ali could
not accept Osman and joined the opposition because, though he differed on
matters of doctrine with Bakr and Omar, his differences with Osman were
severe. Osman followed by Hazrat Ali.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
-Ali accepted the first two Caliphs Bakr and Omar</div>
<br />
<b>The Third Caliph- Osman- 644-656</b><br />
<br />
-656-
assassination of third caliph- Osman by Egyptian rebels along with the the son of
Omar. Ali appointed to Caliphate by the ruling tribe, the Quraysh.
He decided not to punish the rebels severely. He was opposed by Aisha, wife
of Muhammed and daughter of Abu Bakr who wanted rebels punished.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><b>The Fourth Caliph, Ali- 656-661</b><br />
<br />
661-
Kufa- assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib- first imam- rightful
successor to Mohammed. Killed by Kharijite extremists in the mosque of
Kufa. (Shia = partisans of Ali). Shiites see this act as a rejection of
the true succession by the Muslim majority. Buried at Najaf. Ali has
since passed his own infallibility on to a series of Imams.<br />
<br />
<b>Umayyad Caliphate- 661-750.</b><br />
<br />
661- Muawiyah is crowned head of the Muslim Empire in Jerusalem. He establishes the Umayyad Caliphate.<br />
<br />
<br />
"...according to the Famous Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya, <i>Kharijite</i><i>s</i> were the first to use excommunication processes against the rest of the Muslim community. Committing sin is viewed by <i>Kharijites</i>
as a justifiable reason to excommunicate any Muslim who is not in
accordance with their framework of interpreting major Islamic texts.
They then find it lawful for them to fight supposed Muslim sinners and
kill them." -Morocco World News, December 3, 2014.<br />
<br />
683- " In the period of civil war (<i>fitnah</i>) following the death of the
caliph Yazīd I (683), the Khārijites were the source of serious
disruptions within the Umayyad domain and in Arabia. Subdued through the
intensive campaigning of <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="ref268124" name="ref268124"></a>al-Ḥajjāj,
the Khārijites did not stir again until the collapse of the Umayyads,
and then their two major rebellions, in Iraq and Arabia, ended in
defeat." - Encyclopedia Britannica on line.<br />
<br />
<b>Hanbal</b> <br />
<br />
780-855-
Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, sounder of the Hanbali code of Sharia law. He holds
that a decision in Sharia must be referred directly to the Quran and the
sunna- not to the legal framework that had grown up around them. In
other words, he held that the law itself had already been written in the
words of the Quran.<br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for Ahmad Ibn Hanbal" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTobDUJI67aT5Iz__mr6w-ostOHXLdYpSHkvIaGQ5oju_Iwh74BtQ" data-sz="f" name="SBvhxEjg13s3RM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTobDUJI67aT5Iz__mr6w-ostOHXLdYpSHkvIaGQ5oju_Iwh74BtQ" style="height: 184px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 160px;" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Hanbali Reform Movement of early Arabia.</span><br />
<br />
780-855-
Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, sounder of the Hanbali code of Sharia law. He holds
that a decision in Sharia must be referred directly to the Quran and the
sunna- not to the legal framework that had grown up around them. In
other words, he held that the law itself had already been written in the
words of the Quran.<br />
<br />
<br />
-in subsequent centuries, the Hanbali Code loses strength everywhere except at Najd in central Arabia.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>1042-1147-North Africa and Spain</b></span><br />
<br />
Almoravids impose Islamic rule over an area comprising modern Morocco, Mauretainia, northern Mali, western Algeria and Spain.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Ibn Taimiya Revives the Hanbali Code in the Middle Ages.</span><br />
<br />
1300-
(crica) in a revival, Ahmad Ibn Taimiya upholds the Hanbali Code as a
means of reform and of condemning the cults of tombs and saints, and
urging the continual interpretation (itijihad) of law in light of the
Quran. He sees the Shia, with all their excess ritual, as the enemy
within. He upheld the Sunni Caliphs over the Shia Imams because be
believed that seizing and weilding secular power was all that mattered
in a leader- and the Caliphs had done that most effecrively.<br />
<br />
<span class="text"><img class="irc_mi" src="http://islamiceconomy.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/ibn-taymiyyah.jpg" height="246" style="margin-top: 74px;" width="205" /></span><br />
<br />
1328- death of Ibn Taimiya.<br />
<br />
1250-1517- The Mameluke Caliphs of Cairo adopt the Hanbali Code.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Wahhabi Movement of the 18th Century. </span><br />
<br />
1703- Abdul al-Wahhab is born at Najd, a main centre of Hanbali Islam in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula.<br />
<br />
1725
(circa) -Al-Wahhab (1703-1787) founds Muwahidun (unitarian) movement-
an attempt to purify Islam of medieval superstition, to stop the
translation of Sharia into jurisprudence and to get rid of the cult of
saints. The Muwahidun follow the Hanbali school as taught by Tarq al Din
ibn Taimiya (qv). Wahhab's oponnents call his followers 'Wahhabis', the
name that stuck.<br />
<br />
-Wahhab makes attendance at public prayer obligatory, forbids the building of minarets,<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Ibn Saud, Wahhabism and the Origins of the House of Saud</span><br />
<br />
-having failed to spread his movement, Al Wahhab allies himself with a tribal chieftain, Mohammed Ib Saud.<br />
<br />
1726-65- Mohammed Ibn Saud, ruler of the Diraiya Emirate embraces Wahhabism, has his subjects convert on pain of death.<br />
<br />
1745- Muhammad Ibn Saud becomes ruler of Najd, the central plateau and oasis region of Arania, founds the House of Saud.<br />
<br />
-in
alliance with followers of Saud, Wahabbis mount a campaign against
idolatry, corruption and adultery. On the authority of the Hadith, they
ban dancing, music and poetry, silk, gold, ornaments and jewelery.<br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" height="393" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/First_Saudi_State_Big.png" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="481" /><br />
<br />
1766-1803- Mohammed's son, Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, continues to uphold Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
1773- Abdul Aziz ibn Saud takes Riyadh.<br />
<br />
1802- in a campaign against the Shia, the Wahhabis attack the Shia holy city of Karbala.<br />
<br />
1810- the Whhabi Ibn Sauds ruule most of Arabia.<br />
<br />
1803-1814 Saud Ibn Abdul Aziz of the House of Saud tries to spread Wahhabism to the frontiers of Syria and Iraq.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Ottoman Sultan sends the Egyptian Pasha to Crush Wahhabism.</span><br />
<br />
-the Ottoman Sultan is outrages by what he sees as descecration of the holy pplaces of Arabi by the Sauds and their Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
1814-18- Sent by hte sultan, Muhammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, crushes the Wahhabist movement and executes Abdullah Ibn Saud.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Salafism</span><br />
<br />
1838-97- Jamal al-din Afghani. Helps develop Salafism- an Islamic ideology based on the example of the <span style="font-style: italic;">salaf- </span>the
ancestors of early Islam. He promotes the Pan-Islam movement in an
attempt to revive a mythical 'pure' Islam free of ethnic and political
rivalries.<br />
<br />
1849-1905- Muhammad Abdu- a follower of Afghani (b. 1838) emphasized the influence of the Salaf on Sharia law.<br />
<br />
1865-1935-
Muhammad Rashid Rida, follower of Abdu (b. 1849) researched what
Mohammed and 'the pious ancestors' had done and taught so that it could
be applied to contemporary conditions. He preferred the Salaf to the
four Sunni legal schools.<br />
<br />
<b>19th century in Mali-</b><br />
-French colonial advance provokes the
Fula and <i>Toucouleur</i> (Tukolor ) jihads which spread across region. Various theocratic states formed.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Fall and Revival of Wahhabism</span><br />
<br />
1881- House of Saud expelled from the Riyadh region. But it revivies under Abdul Rahman Ibn Al Saud and spreads Wahhabism<br />
<br />
1891- Abdul Rahman Ibn Al Saud of the House of Saud is overthrown at Diraiya by the House Of Rashid which has Ottoman backing.<br />
<br />
-the
Deobandi and Ahl-i-Hadith movements rise in northern India- in an
attempt to rally and purify Islam against British and western colonial
forces. Both are opposed to the Shia.<br />
<br />
1894- Mali<b>-</b> Tuareg rebels declare a jihad against the French following their occupation of the city of Tombouctou in January<br />
<br />
1902 -Abdul Aziz
ibn Abdul Rahman al Saud re-conquers the Najd from the Ottomans,
reviviing Wahhabism militarily and politically through the Ikhwan
Wahhabist movement. Wahabbis mount new attacks on hypocrites, laxity,
non-blievers. The criteria for belief is strict adherecne to the Sharia.<br />
<br />
1905-6- Abdul Aziz Ibn Abdul Rahman takes east central Arabia.<br />
<br />
1913-
Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, commander of the Whhabist Ikhwan army invades the
Shia region of Al-Hasa and attempts to impose Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Mohammed Qutb</span><br />
<br />
1906-66- Sayyid Mohammed Qutb. Muslim ideologue. Born in Asyut, Egypt. Trained as a teacher in Cairo.<br />
<br />
1920s- Salafis teach that since Mohammed was chosen by the community, leadership of Islam cannot be hereditary.<br />
<br />
1925-
Ibn Saud's Ikhwan Wahhabists destroy the Jannat al Baghi cemetery in
Medina, a Shia holy place where the daughter of the Prophet and the 3nd,
4th, 5th and 6th Shia imams are buried.<br />
<br />
1926- The Ikhwan resorts to the systematic killing of Shia.<br />
<br />
1927-
May 20- British lay down treaty of Jeddah giving the Hijaz and Jajd to
Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud. The Ikhwan, sends a Wahhabi recolt against Ibn Saud
for using telephone,s radios, cars etc.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Muslim Brotherhood and the Saudi Domestication of Wahhabism.</span><br />
<br />
1928- Muslim Brotherhood founded by Hassan al Banna in Egypt for moral and social reform.<br />
<br />
1930s-
House of Saud becomes rich on oil wealth, moderates its belief in
Wahhabism; the pogroms against the Shia are stopped; instead the Shia
suffer discrimination and marginalization.<br />
<br />
1932- the vast desert region whose heart is the Najd bcomes the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
-in Mecca, the Supreme Religious Council continues to be the official head of Wahabbism.<br />
<br />
1939-
Muslim brother hood becomes a political movement in response to the
Arab uprising against the British in Palestine (1936) and Egyptian
protest against the the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty (1936). The brotherhood
declares that the Quran and the Hadith are sufficient as a social
political code for any time and place.<br />
<br />
1940- the Muslim brotherhood has 500 branches each with a mosque and social services.<br />
<br />
1948-
Qutb is sent to university in Colorado, USA by his ministry. He is
appalled at what he sees as America's decadence and depravity.<br />
<br />
1948-49-
members of the Muslim Brotherhood fight in the Palestine War,
recruiting Egyptian officers and gaining military experience. The
Brotherhood turns against Egypt which is blames for the 1948-49 war.<br />
<br />
1948- Egypt declares martial law and bans the Brotherhood.<br />
<br />
-Egyptian premier, Fahmi Nokrashi Pasha, is assassinated by the Brotherhood.<br />
<br />
1949- Hassan a Banna, leader of the Egyptian Brotherhood is assassinated.<br />
<br />
1950- with the lifting of martial law, the Brotherhood enters mainstream Egyptian politics.<br />
<br />
1951-
Qutb returns to Egypt but his anti-American views get him expelled from
the education ministry. He joins the Muslim Brootherhood. In his
writings he says that America should be placed under a sentence of
death.<br />
<br />
1952- the Brotherhood supports Egypt in rejecting the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and participates in the Cairo riots.<br />
<br />
1952- the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) overthrows the regime in Egypt.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Egypt bans the Muslim Brotherhood.</span><br />
<br />
1954-
Egypt's RCC bans the Muslim Brotherhood. Qutb and other members are
held in a concentration camp. He writes his defining work, Maalim Fi Al
Tariq- "Signposts on the Road"- which divides all social systems into
"The Order of Islam" and "The Order of Ignorance." The book remains a
text book for radical Islam.<br />
<br />
23rd Oct.- after
Brotherhood members attempt to assassinate President Nasser, the
plotters are hanged, many are imprisoned or driven into exile in Syria,
Lebanon, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
1957- birth of Osama
Bin laden, son of a bricklayer from South Yemen. Bin Laden's father
settles in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and becomes a wealthy construction
magnate.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Qutb Becomes Leader of the Muslim Brotherhood.</span><br />
<br />
1964-
Qutb and cohorts are released from detainment in Egypt. "Signposts on
the Road" is smuggled out of Egypt. Though he is non-violent, the Muslim
Brotherhood promotes him into the leadership to avenge their
persecution in Egypt.<br />
<br />
-Nasser tries to include the Muslim Brotherhood in the Arab Socialist Union to combat Communism.<br />
<br />
-repeated attempts by the Brotherhood to assassinate Nasser.<br />
<br />
1966-Sayyid
Muhammed Qutb is put on trial in Egypt. He states that the nations of
the Middle East are a western fabrication and that actually Islam has no
nations, only a Community of Believers.<br />
<br />
-Sayyid Muhammed Qutb and other Brotherhood leaders are executed.<br />
<br />
<b>Muslim Brotherhood gains from 1967 War with Israel.</b><br />
<br />
1967- Egypt decisively defeated in war with Israel.<br />
<br />
1968-
popular feeling that Egypt had received divine retribution for Arab
Socialism causes Nasser to grant a general amnesty to the Muslim
Brotherhood.<br />
<br />
-new Egyptian president, Anwar Sadat, attempts to integrate the Brotherhood into the mainstrem.<br />
<br />
1975 (circa) Saalafis active in Kuwait where they want a republican, democratic regime.<br />
<br />
<b>Egypt's Sadat Bans the Muslim Brotherhood causing it to Radicalize.</b><br />
<br />
1976-
fearing the expanding power of the Brotherhood, President Sadat bans it
from Egyptian elections. 15 Brotherhood members are elected as members
of other parties causing a radical wing to split off in protest.<br />
<br />
-the Muslim Brotherhood radicalizes and turns against Sadat's modernization and pro-Israel and pro-West policies.<br />
<br />
<b>Uprising against Saudis; beginning of Careers of Osama Bin Laden and Ayman Zawahiri. </b><br />
<br />
1978- Ayman Zawahiri graduates as as a surgeon from Cairo's University's medical school.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden graduates with a degree in civil engineering from King Abdul Aziz University in Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
1979-
armed uprising against rulers of Saudi Arabia at the Grand Mosque-
assisted by Salafis from Kuwait. The young engineering graduate, Bin
laden, regards them as true Muslims. Salafis have since become active in
Kuwait politics.<br />
<br />
1979- Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin sign the Egyptian-Istaeli peace Treaty<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>.</b> </span>But his new peace costs Egypt membership in the Arab League.<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
-due to the unpopularity of the treaty at home, Sadat becomes increasingly autocratic.<br />
<br />
<b>Roots of the Al Nusra Front.</b><br />
<br />
1980-<span style="font-size: small;"> Abu Musab al Sur (</span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">aka Mustafa Setmariam Nasar and the</span>
intellectual godfather of Al Nusra) joins the Combatant Vanguard
organization, a radical offshoot of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood which
is at the forefront in the Islamic uprising in Hama, Syria.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Abdullah Azzam's 'Bureau of Service' in Pakistan for Afghan Jihad- antecedent to Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
1980- Abdullah Azzam founds Maktab al Khidmat (Bureau of Service) in Peshawar, Pakistan.<br />
<br />
-Pakistani
ISI and American CIA camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border join in
training non-Afhgan Mujehadeen to fight the Soviets in Afghanistan. They
use US army training manuals translated into Urdu, Arabic and Persian,
stressing nationalism and Islam.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden visits Peshawar and lobbies family and friends to support the anti-Soviet jihad in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
-Osama
Bin Laden goes back to Saudi Arabia, raises large sums from family
connections and returns to Pakistan with members of the family business,
the Saudi Binlandin Group.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin laden leads non-Afghan Mujehadeen in Afghan war against the Soviets.</b><br />
<br />
-Bin laden becomes leader of the non-Afghan Mujehadeen, working alongside the CIA and the ISI.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>1980s- Somalia</b> fights Islamic fundamentalists in its north and the Patriotic Front in the south.<br />
<br />
<b>Zawahiri arrested in Assassination of Sadat.</b><br />
<br />
1981-
Oct 6- a radical wing of the Muslim Brotherhood assassinates President
Sadat. Ayman al Zawahiri is among those jailed in the plot.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Sur- the Grandfather of Al Nusra.</b><br />
<br />
1982- <span style="font-size: small;">Al Sur joins in the uprising of the Muslim
Brotherhood at Hama which is crushed by Syrian President Hafez al Assad,
killing tens of thousands. </span><br />
<br />
1984-
Egyptian President Mubarak maintains elections ban on Muslim
Brotherhood. Muslim Brotherhood members get elected as members of the
Neo-Wafd party.<br />
<br />
-the Muslim Brotherhood, uses highly educated members to dominate syndicates of lawyers, doctors, journalists and engineers.<br />
<br />
-Zawahiri is released from prison in Egypt.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Works for Pak-Afghan Bureau of Service.</b><br />
<br />
-in
Pakistan, Bin Laden comes under the influence of Abdulla Azzam, head of
the jihadi Bureau of Service. He vets non-Afghan volunteers, supervises
road construction and refurbishing caves for storage. He also engages
in guerilla sorties.<br />
<br />
1986- Bureau of Service sets up a branch in the US at the farooq Mosque in Brooklyn.<br />
<br />
-Bin
laden oversees construction of a sophsiticated tunnel complex for
storage, supplies and refuge at Khost on the Afghan-Pakistan border. The
complex is near Tora Bora.<br />
<br />
<b>Zawahiri joins the Anti-Soviet Afghan Struggle.</b><br />
<br />
-Zawahiri
travels to Pakistan to join the medical corps of the Mujehadeen
fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan. He is stationed in peshawar where
he sets up a branch of Islamic Jihad.<br />
<br />
1987- The Muslim
Brotherhood gains singificant power in the Egyptian parliament by
allying itself with socialist parties. Brotherhood deputies demand an
end to the Israeli-Egyptian treaty, to all ties with the United States
and the application of Sharia law.<br />
<br />
1988- Bin Laden and
Azzam make 'MAK' or The Service Bureau offical. Bin Laden wants to
advance non-military operations world-wide- while Azzam prefers a
military strategy.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda is new name for the Service Bureau upon murder of Azzam and victory in Afghanistan.</b><br />
<br />
1989- February- Bin Laden declares withdrawal of Soviets from Afghanistan a victory for the Jihad.<br />
<br />
November-
Azzam assassinated; Pakistan's ISI is a suspect. Bin Laden, assisted
by Muhammad Atef and Abu Ubaidah al Banshiri, takes over, renaming
Maktab al Khidmat 'Al Qaeda'- 'The Base', with a plan to expand the
Soviet Jihad into an international Jihad from headquarters in Peshawar.
The prime target is US interests world-wide with Al Qaeda launching its
own attacks or sponsoring similar outfits to attack Al Qaeda targets.<br />
<br />
Al Mohammed, trained as a US commando at Fort Bragg, leaves the US and joins Osama Bin Laden in Afghanistan and pakistan.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden abandons Afghan Civil war for Saudi Arabia.</b><br />
<br />
-Bin Laden resturns to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, discouraged by the inter-ethnic Afghan civil war.<br />
<br />
1990-
When Iraq invades Kuwait, Bin Laden offers to set up a citizen militia
to defend Saudi Arabia but the kingdom rejects his offer.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Repudiates US bases in Saudi Arabia for First Gulf War.</b><br />
<br />
1991
-the US responds to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait by setting up military
bases to protect Saudi Arabia's oil fields at Hama. Bin Laden swears to
avenge what he sees as US violation and occupation of Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
-Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood supports Saddam Hussein.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Sets up Al Qaeda in Sudan; active also in Mogadishu and the Balkans.</b><br />
<br />
1991-1996-
Bin Laden, based in Sudan, sets up a series of corporate entities,
running Al Qaeda as if it were a corporation. It is ruled by a Shura or
Council of Twelve, with four executive committees: military (commanded
by Muhammed Atef) business, Islamic Studies , Media, and Public
Relations.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda begins launching international operations from Sudan.<br />
<br />
1992-93- Bin Laden intervenes in civil war in Somalia. His lieuenant, Atef, trains Somai tribes opposed to UN intervention.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda appears in Somalia in midst of clan war.</b><br />
<b> </b> <br />
1992-3-
as part of Osama Bin Laden’s Sudan-based al Qaeda support for Somali
Muslims, 9/11 terrorist Mohammed Atef trains Somali tribal guerillas
opposed to UN intervention<br />
<br />
<br />
-Ban Laden accused by US of complicity in American defeat in Mogadishu.<br />
<br />
-the
Deobandi movement, originally a Sunni anti-colonial force born in
British India, has spread from Bagladesh to Pakistan and southern
Afghanistan. Deobandi teaching leads to the formation if the Taliban.<br />
<br />
1993- Al Qaeda has about 1,000 members, mostly Afghan veteran Jihadis.<br />
It supports 5,000 Arab fighters defending Muslims in the Balkans during the Bosnian Civil War (1992-1995)<br />
<br />
<b>First World Trade Centre Attack Fails. Al Qaeda spreads globally.</b><br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda-linked bomb blast at World Trade Centre, New York.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda
has agents in Albania, Britain, Pakistan, Holland, Malasia, Lebanon,
Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and the United Arab Enirates.<br />
<br />
-Al
Qaeda forms loose associations with similar outfits in Ageria,
Chechnya, Egypt, Ethiopia, the Horn of Africa, Lebanon, Libya, the
Phulippines, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Yemen, Syria and Tunisia.<br />
<br />
1994- Al Zawahiri joins Bin Laden in Khartoum Sudan, becomes his mentor.<br />
<br />
-Saudi government revokes Bin Laden's citizenship and freezes his assets of $20-25 million<br />
<br />
-attempt
on Bin Laden's life. He founds the Committee for Advice and Reform. The
CAR is intended to promote preaceful reform in Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
1995- finally allowed to campaign openly in Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood runs 150 candidates, all of whom lose.<br />
<br />
-Islamabad- truck bombing kills 18- Egypt holds Zawahiri responsible.<br />
<br />
-CIA sets up a "Bin Laden station".<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Expelled from Sudan.</b> <b>Zawahiri heads Egyptian wing of Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
-1996-
Sudan expels Bin Laden for his verbal attacks on the king of Saudi
Arabia and puts him under surveillance in order that Sudan be removed
from the U.S. list of terror states.<br />
<br />
-botched Egyptian
operations by the EIJ (Egyptian islamic Jihad, led by Ayman al
Zawahiri), the Egyptian wing of Al Qaeda, get the EIJ expelled from
Sudan.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Returns to Afghanistan.</b> <b>Victorious Taliban Gives protection to Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
1996-
Bin Laden moves Al Qaeda headquarters from Somalia to Jalalabad,
Afghanistan, though Jalalabad is still outside Taliban control.<br />
<br />
-Shalh Kaled first suggests an attack on New York's World Trade towers to Bin Laden.<br />
<br />
Sept.
-- Taliban takes Kabul and Jalalbad in civil war. Mullah Omar, leader
of the Taliban, gives protection and freedom of action to Bin Laden
and Al Qaeda after Bin Laden swears loyalty; but also to accommodate,
former anti-Soviet Jihadists who had been expelled from their home
countries and unemployed Jihadists from the recent Bosnian, Kashmir and
Chechen wars. A veteran Al Qaeda unit fights alongside the Taliban.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda's 3,000 fighters are known as the Taliban's 55th Brigade. Al Qaeda has 45,000 adherents in 60 countries.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda announces plans to expel foreigners from Islamic lands.<br />
<br />
1997- Zawahiri joins Bin Laden in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Bombs US Embassies in Nairobi and Dar Es Salaam.</b><br />
<br />
1998- August- Al Qaeda bombs US embassies inNairobi and Dar As Salaam, killing 227.<br />
<br />
-Wshington
places Bin Laden on its 10 most wanted list with a $5 million rewaerd
on his head. and demands the Taliban hand him over. Mullah Omae refuses.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Union Of Islamic Courts in Somalia.</b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
1998-2000 four sharia courts in Somalia bond together.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
2000- the Union of Islamic Courts. Is founded in Somalia.</div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Releases Fatwa against Americans and Jews.</b><br />
<br />
1999:<b> </b>Jordanian Sunni militant Abu Mussab al-Zarqawi flees his
country after a failed hotel bombing and moves his group, known then as
Tawhid and Jihad, to Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
-Bin
Laden releases a Fatwa calling for attacks on US citizens. Zawahiri
joins his Islamic Jihad with Bin Laden's World Islamic Front for Jihad
Against Crusaders and Jews. Zawahiri is in charge of ideology. Charter
members are Abu Yasser Rafia Ahmad Taha, Mir Hamza and Faz ul Rahman.
Among ists grievances are the UN sanctions against Iraq, US military
bases in Saudi Arabia, the existence of Israel and its domination of the
Palestinians. Its aims are the killing of any American or Israeli, the
liberation of Jerusalem's Al Aqsa Mosque and the Holy Mosque in Mecca
andto overthrow all the regimes in Muslim countries that supported
western interests.<br />
<br />
-Nov. 4- a US grand jury returns a 238 count indictment for murder and other charges against Bin Laden and Zawahiri.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden gives the go-ahead to Sheikh Khaled to organize abd lauch the attack on the WTC in New York.<br />
<br />
1999-
20 members of the Muslim Brotherhood arrested for plotting to overthrow
the government and ifiltrating professional syndicates.<br />
<br />
-9/11 plans finalized by the Al Qaeda military committee.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Early Stages of 9/11 Attacks.</b><br />
<br />
-a
group of highly educated, disciplined Islamists living in Hamburg and
with experience of the West travel to to Afhganistan to meet Bin Laden
to plan the attack on the the WTC. <br />
<br />
<b>Syrian forerunners to Al Nusra.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2000 -Syrian Jihadists fighting alongside Al Qaeda leader Zarqawi in Herat, Afghanistan. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Bombs USS Cole in Yemen.</b><br />
<br />
2000- October- Al Qaeda bombs the USS Cole, docked in Aden, Yemen. US holds Bin Laden responsible.<br />
<br />
-the Muslim Brotherhood wins 17 seats in the Egyptian parliament.<br />
<br />
Dec.
-the US has the UN Security Council demand that the Taliban hand over
Bin Laden on pain of an arms embargo on Afghanistan. Mullah Omar
refuses.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2001- Abu Mohammed Jolani (Golani) (later to lead Al Nusra) under the command of Al Qaeda deputy leader Ayman al Zawahiri. </span><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span><br />
<br />
2001- Feb.- public trial in US of 4
conspirators in bombing of Kenyan and Ethiopian embassies enlarges Bin
Laden's following in the Muslim World.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda 9/11 hijackers begin arriving in the US<br />
<br />
-the hijack leader, Mohammed Atta meets Binalshibh in Spain to work out final details of WTC attack.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Executes 9/11 Attack on World Trade Towers.</b><br />
<br />
2001-
Sept 11- Al Qaeda operatives fly two passenger planes into the twin
towers of the World Trade centre in Manhattan, killing about 3,000. A
third plane is crashed into the Pentagon and a fourth crashes in a field
in Pennsylvania, killing all aboard.<br />
<br />
-the US names
Osama Bin Laden and Zawahiri as conspirators in the 9/11 plots. In vain,
the US demands that Mullah Omar hand over Bin Laden.<br />
<br />
2001-
Sept-- 9/11 Al Qaeda attacks on New York-: President Musharaff Sides
with Washington against Taliban-ruled Afghanistan, under severe pressure
from Assistant Secretary of State Armitage. This, however, gains
Pakistan badly needed international loans. <br />
<br />
Oct 7- Bin Laden and Al Zawahiri release a 20 minute statement claiming responsibility for the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
Nov. Mohammed Atef, Al Qaeda military commander killed by drone strike in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
Dec.12 - Zacarias Musawi, a Moroccan born French citizen is the first suspect to be charged in the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi, the Progenitor of ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2000 -Syrian Jihadists fighting alongside Al Qaeda leader Zarqawi in Herat, Afghanistan. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2002- Musab al Zarqawi arrives in Iraq and founds Hai al Jamià Baghdad. Syrians who had been with Zarqawi in
Herat, Afghanistan are sent to build network branches in Syria and
Lebanon. Zarqawi would later exercise control from Iraq. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Yemen Cracks down on Al Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
-US and Yemen agree that mountain homeland of the Bin Ladens is a prime region for terror training camps.<br />
<br />
2002-
Feb. Yemen expels over 100 Islamic scholars, many of them English and
French nationals in a a move against Al Qaeda suspects.<br />
<br />
<b>Execution of Daniel Pearl.</b><br />
<br />
2002-
Feb 1- Wall Street Journalist Reporter Daniel Pearl decapitated in
Karachi by a Pakistani Al-Qaeda-linked organization led byAhmed Omar
Saeed Sheikh.<br />
<br />
March 2-- Abu Zubaydah, Al Qaeda's chief field and recruitment officer and Bin Laden's number 3 man, is arrested in Pakistan.<br />
<br />
April 11- 18 are killed in attack outside a Tunisian synagogue when Al Qaeda explodes an oil tanker.<br />
<br />
June 11- Jose Padilla is arrested landing in US from Pakistan and accused of hatching a 'dirty bomb' plot.<br />
<br />
Sept 11- Ramzi Bimalshibh, a high-ranking Al Qaeda member and one of the 9/11 plotters is arrested in Karachi.<br />
<br />
Oct. -the supertanker Limburg is heavily damaged off the coast of Yemen in attack. Al Qaeda is suspected.<br />
<br />
<b>The Bali Night Club Bombing and US and Allied Invasion of Afghanistan.</b><br />
<br />
Oct 12- Indonesia's Al-Qaeda-linked Jemaah Islamiya carries out massive attack on a Bali nightclub killing 202.<br />
<br />
<br />
Nov.-
US and NATO invasion of Afghanistan. Taliban driven from Kabul. US
discovers video tape in which Bin Laden names 9 of the 9/11 hijackers
during a meeeting with radical Jeddah cleric Khalid Harbi.<br />
<br />
-Bin Ladin escapes to Tora Bora and tribal area of Waziristan.<br />
<br />
Nov. 28 -Al Qaeda claims responsibility for an attack on an Israeli-owned hotel in Mombassa, Kenya, killing 16<br />
<br />
<b>9/11 Planner Sheikh Khaled Arrested</b><br />
<br />
2003- March 1- Khaled Sheikh Mohammed- Bin Laden's architect of 9/11 is arrested in a CIA-Pakistani operation in Islamabad.<br />
<br />
-Washington asks the Pakistan's ISI to hand over al Qaeda militants, but the ISI only hands over foreign Al Qaeda foot soldiers.<br />
<br />
-Mounir Moutassadek is found guilty by a German court in Hamburg of helping to to mount the 9/11 attacks. He gets 12 years.<br />
<br />
<b>US Invasion of Iraq.</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">2003- US Invasion of Iraq: "The link between al-Nusra and the AQI is logical and should not be
surprising. Al-Nusra is formed of fighters who took part in the
post-2003 armed campaign against US forces in Iraq, jihadists who
essentially crossed into Iraq from Syria to commit terrorist atrocities
against US and Iraqi targets. Most of AQI's (Al Qaeda in Iraq) fighters were foreign
jihadists from neighbouring countries, in particular Syria. Al-Nusra's
leader, Jawlani, has himself acknowledged that he fought in Iraq
alongside AQI."- Rusi.org, April, 2013.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-Syria becomes the pipeline for sending jihadists into Iraq for the Zarqawi network, with safe houses kept by Syrian jihadists.</span> </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
August- Embryonic Al Qaeda in Iraq begins a campaign of suicide bombing.</div>
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda-linked Attacks in Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Istanbul</b><br />
<br />
May 12- at least 34 killed in an Al Qaeda attack on foreign luxury compounds in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
May
16- Salafiya Jihadia, an al-Qaeda-linked Moroccan cell, kills 45 in
suicide bombings on international targets in Casablanca, Morocco.<br />
<br />
June 27 -Ali Abdul Rahman al Gamdi arrested in Riyadh suicide attacks.<br />
<br />
Dec. 15- 23 killed in suicide attacks on two Istanbul synagogues.<br />
<br />
Dec 20- 27 killed in double suicide bombing on the British Consulate and a British bank in Istanbul.<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan.</b><br />
<br />
-2003-2004- winter. The Pakistan army launches assaults against the Taliban and al Qaeda in Waziristan<br />
<br />
2004--March and June offensives against al Qaeda in the Afghan border area.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Abu Musab al Zarqawi prepares to lead Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b><br />
<br />
2004-
Feb 9- US discovers plot for Al Qaeda entry into Iraq by Abu Musab al
Zarqawi and plans to turn Sunni and Shia against one another.<br />
<br />
2004: April Zarqawi renames his group al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), pledges
allegiance to Osama bin Laden, and steps up a deadly campaign against
U.S. and Iraqi targets. AQI’s ranks swell as Arab jihadists enter the
country to fight against the U.S., and the group also becomes notorious
for abducting foreigners and filming their execution. <br />
<br />
<b>The Madrid Train Bombings.</b><br />
<br />
March 11- Madrid train bombings by a group linked or sympathetic to Al Qaeda kill 191.<br />
<br />
April 15- A Bin laden tape offers a truce to all European countries that withdraw from the US's alleged war against Muslims.<br />
<br />
May
17- head of the Iraqi Governing Council killed in Al Qaeda attack. US
traces Zarqawi to a number of attacks incuding beheading of a US
hostage.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Attacks and Hostage Beheading in Saudi Arabia.</b><br />
<br />
May
30- 22 killed by Al Qaeda-linked group in foreigners' compound at
Khobar, Saudi Arabia before the compound is stormed by Saudi commandos.<br />
<br />
June
18- US hostage Paul Johnson beheaded by Al Qaeda group in Saudi Arabia.
Abdul Aziz al Muqin, head of Al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia, killed by
security forces.<br />
<br />
<b>Algeria, Kenya, Pakistan, Yemen.</b><br />
<br />
June- Abdelmalik Droukdel announces his arrival with a truck bomb
at the Algeria’s most important electrical production facility and
focuses on associating the GSPC with Al Qaeda. . “The Algerian
military says he cut his teeth in the 1990s as a member of the
Armed Islamic Group’s feared Ahoual or “horror” company, blamed for
some of the most gruesome massacres of Algeria’s civil war.” NYT<br />
<br />
-GSPC (al-Qaeda-linked Salafist Group for Call and Combat) declares war on all foreign nationals and interests in Algeria. <br />
<br />
July 30-2004 -capture of Ahmed Khalfin Ghalani, Al Qaeda operative linked to 1998 Kenya US embassy bombing.<br />
<br />
Sept
26- Amjad Farooqi, wanted in connection to AlQaeda murder of Daniel
Pearl, killed in shoot-out with Pakistani Police. Farooqi is closely
linked to Aby Faraj Al Libbi, Al Qaeda chief for Pakistan.<br />
<br />
Sept
29- 2004- A Yemeni court senteces two Al Qaeda operatives, Al-Bashiri
and Al Badawi to death for the attack on the USS Cole. Four others get
prison sentences.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi's Allegiance to Bin laden.</b><br />
<br />
2004 -Oct- Abu Musab Al Zarqawi, leader of "Monotheism and Jihad" swears allegiance to Osama Bin Laden.<br />
<br />
Oct 29- days prior to US elections, Bin aden realeases video tape warning of more attacks on th US.<br />
<br />
2004-2005-
Pakistan- due to losses in the Waziristan offensive against the Taliban and al
Qaeda, Pakistan makes various peace deals with local Taliban-supporting
tribes. The Taliban effectively control Waziristan.<br />
<br />
<br />
-after Amjad Farooqi is killed in shoot out with police in
Karachi, Matiur Rehman takes his place as Al Qaeda planning director.
Matiur Rehman us alleged to have been involved in bombing of the Sheraton
Hotel in Karachi.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">-2005- Abu Musab
al-Sur, noted jihadi theorist followed by Al Nusra- " al-Suri was
arrested in Pakistan (2005), but for some reason was released and
handed over to Syria when the rebel uprising began (2011). It is
believed that
he freely resides somewhere within Syria’s borders and his teachings are
heavily influencing the strategies of the Al Nusra Front".- SOFREP,
March 24, 2013.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-Zaraqawi's Al Qaeda in Iraq becomes the Mujahedeen Shura Council after various armed factions are integrated.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2005:<b> </b> Senior AQI figure Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim Ali al-Badri (aka
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, aka Abu Du’a) – later described by Iraqi law
enforcement as an Islamic law PhD, and the group’s “spiritual leader”
during this period – is arrested and held at the U.S. military-run Camp
Bucca in southern Iraq. (Reports differ on whether he was held for one,
four or five years, and details of his release remain hazy.) </span></div>
<br />
2005-
14 April -Kamil Bourgass, Al Qaeda suspect found guilty of murdering a
police officer and threatening to spead ricin in Birtain, gets 17 year
sentence.<br />
<br />
-violence
escalates in Iraq, some of it sectarian, most of it still involving the
US military campaign against allied Sunni, Baathist and Al Qaeda
militants.<br />
<br />
April 22- Al Qaeda suspects go on trial in Madrid court for helping to plan 9/11 bombings.<br />
<br />
May
4- Faraj Al Libbi, Al Qaeda's number three after Zawahiri and head of
operations in Pakistan is arrested by pakistani police.<br />
<br />
<b>July 7, 2005 London Underground Bombings.</b><br />
<br />
July 7- Al-Qaeda inspired group brings off London underground bombings, killing 56.<br />
<br />
July 21- four more London underground bombings fail to detonate. Within days, four suspects are identified and arrested.<br />
<br />
<b>Sharm-al-Sheikh Bombings </b><br />
<br />
July
23- 61 killed in AlQaeda-linked bombings in the Egyptian Red Sea
rfesort of Sharm al-Sheikh. One suspect is killed by police in a
shootout with Islamists.<br />
<br />
August 19- rockets are fired at the Jordanian port city of Aqaba and at the nearby Israeli port city of Eliat.<br />
<br />
Sept. 26- Madrid Court sentences 18 men to prison terms for planning the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b> <br />
<br />
(July 2005)- Matuir Rehman involved in another plot on Musharraf- disrupted by police.<br />
<br />
Nov. 2005- Hamza Rabia, Al Qaeda International Operations commander killed by drone attack in North Waziristan.<br />
<br />
-Dec.
2005- Abu faraj al-Libbi- al Qaeda leader No. 3- involved in an
attempt on Musharraff at Rawalpindi. Libbi is arrested in Mardan. Matiur
Rehman is wanted in connection ith the same plot. <br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Algeria: GSPC links up, merges with Al Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
Dec
8- the extremist Algerian Salafist Group for Call and Combat
(GSPC) plans to set up an Al-Qaeda branch in the Maghreb countries
as a base for attacks to be launched on the countries that support
US administration.<br />
<br />
<br />
2006- January- Al Qaeda in the
Maghreb is officially formed from the Algerian GSPC, the Moroccan
GICM (responsible for the Casablanca and Madrid bombings in 2003
and 2004 respectively), and other Tunisian elements.<br />
<br />
<br />
2006- January 19- Bin Laden releases tape offering US the choice of a truce or new attacks.<br />
<b><br />
</b><br />
<b>Sacred Shia Al Askiriya Mosque blown up by Al Qaeda to iginite Sectarian war in Iraq </b><br />
<br />
February-
Al Qaeda in Iraq operatives blow up the Al Askiriya Mosque in Samarra,
sacred to Iraqi Shia, deliberately setting off an ethnic bloodbath
between Sunni and Shia Muslims.<br />
<br />
May 3- Zakarais Moussaoui is sentenced to life in US court. He is the sold person charged in the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi killed in targeted US air attack near Baghdad.</b><br />
<br />
June 7- Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al Zarqawi is killed in a targeted US air strike northeast of Baghdad.<br />
<br />
July 12- British-Pakistani terrorists arrested for plan to bomb 12 airliners during an Atlantic crossing. <br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b> <br />
<br />
July-
Osama Bin Laden announces al Qaeda will oppose with force any
intervention in Somalia where he backs the idea of an Islamic state.<br />
<br />
Sept
3- Al Qaeda in Iraq's number 2 man, Jama Al Saedi is captured by Iraqi
authorities. Al Saedi planned the bombing of the Al Askiriya shrine.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Al Qaeda in the Maghreb.</span><br />
<br />
Sept 11- Ayman Zawahiri of Al Qaeda announces the formation of Al Qaeda in the Maghreb.<br />
<br />
<b>Zawahiri announces creation of Al Qaeda in the Maghreb (AQIM) from merger.</b><br />
<br />
Sept
14- Ayman Al Zawahiri announces the merger of the Algerian militant
group, the GSPC with Al Qaeda, creating Al Qaeda in the Maghredb (AQIM)<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>ISI before ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
2006-
Oct 6- Al Qaeda in Iraq becomes the Islamic State Of Iraq (ISI) founded
as an umbrella group for Sunni militant organizations including Al
Qaeda. A<span style="font-size: small;">fter the death of Zarqawi, Abu Hamza al-Muhajir and Abu Omar
al-Baghdadi take the lead of Al Qaeda in Iraq.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Al Zawi heads Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Oct. 2006: AQI renames itself Islamic State of Iraq, and its
leader is identified as Hamid Dawud al-Zawi (aka Abu-Omar al-Baghdadi),
an Iraqi. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
2006-
Oct 6- rhe Islamic State Of Iraq (ISI) founded
as an umbrella group for Sunni militant organizations including Al
Qaeda. A<span style="font-size: small;">fter the death of Zarqawi, Abu Hamza al-Muhajir and </span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Hamid Dawud al-Zawi</span> (AKA Abu Omar
al-Baghdadi) take the lead of Al Qaeda in Iraq. </span><br />
<br />
-"Abu Hamza al-Muhajir, to this day considered by ISIS as one of its
founding fathers, was an Al-Qaeda operative of Egyptian origin, born in
1968, and was close to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. In 1982 he joined the
Egyptian jihadi organization headed by Ayman al-Zawahiri and was
sentenced to death by Egypt in 1994 (apparently in absentia). Between
2001 and 2002 he underwent training in Afghanistan where he met Abu
Musab al-Zarqawi. He specialized in preparing IEDs used in Afghanistan
and Iraq...: -Crethiplethi-<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b><br />
<br />
-Oct. -many of
the British Pakistanis later suspected in the August 2006 attempted
airline bombings in London travelled to Muzaffarabad as humanitarian
earthquake relief in Jamiat ud Dawa, whose umbrella organization is
Lashakr e Toiba. Membrs of the al Qaeda-linked Jundullah, a Pakistani
terror group took them to training camps in Waziristan before returning
to relief camps.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Tunisia</b> <br />
<br />
Dec 2006 to January 2007- (Dec. 23, Jan 3) Algerian Salafist groups
engage Tunisian police and army units with 14 terrorists and some police
killed.<br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dec.
4- US General John Abizaid visits Adis Ababba. The United States,
worried about assistance being given to Somali Islamists by Al Qaeda,
has covertly backed Ethiopia.</div>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2007: AQIM in the Sahel.</span><br />
<br />
February-
news reports point to Al Qaeda training camps in the Sahel from
Senegal to Ethiopia with plans to attack targets in Europe.<br />
<br />
Feb
13- GSPC claims responsibility for car bombings in Boumerdas and
Tizi Ouzou, on the Berber region of Kabylia in eastern Algeria.
(This was a center of resistance during the Algerian war).<br />
<br />
<br />
-Feb
16 - in the mountain region of Qashra near the town of Skikda,
Alergian police kill 26 and arrest 35 militants in response to the Feb
13 car bombings.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Al Qaeda in the Maghreb (GSPC) : terror operations in Algeria and Morocco.</span><br />
<br />
Feb
20- Moroccan police search for Hmam Bilal et Bel Hachmi and
Mohamed Rida who are accused of having ties with groups including
the Algeria-based al Qaeda Organisation in the Islamic Maghreb,<br />
<br />
March 11- suicide bombing in Casablanca internet cafe.<br />
<br />
2007- March 15- Mohammed Sheikh Khaled admits to planning the 9/11 attacks and 30 others at a hearing at Guantanamo Bay.<br />
<br />
March
27- at a hearing at Gunatanamo Bay, Australian convert to Islam David
Hicks, confesses to support for terrorist operations.<br />
<br />
April 10- three suicide blasts kill and wound police in raid on Casablanca safe house.<br />
<br />
April 11- Algiers- bombings of the police station and prime minister’s office claim 17 lives. Claimed by Al Qaeda.<br />
<br />
April 14- two suicide bombings on US diplomatic offices in Casablanca.<br />
<br />
April 27- high Al Qaeda operative, Al Hadi Al Iraqi, is captured by the US on his way to take over Al Qaeda operations in Iraq.<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b><br />
<br />
-March-April- 250 killed in clashes between South Waziristan tribesmen and al Qaeda militants.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<br />
2007- <span style="font-size: small;">Syrian government cracks down on the late
Zarqawi`s Syrian jihadists and safe houses. The fighters leave Syria for
refuge in Iraq.</span><br />
<br />
<b>IRAQ: US troop surge against Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2007:</b> Anbar-based tribal “awakening” campaign against ISI (AQI) and
other militants and “surge” of troop reinforcements sent in by
President Bush helps to stem the tide of violence, marking a turning
point in the Iraq conflict.-U.S.
General Petraeus adopts sophisticated, modern counterinsurgency methods
against Sunni insurgents as part of the troop surge. US marines make
tactical alliances with Sunni Sheikhs and other former nsurgents in
Anbar province who are tired of al Qaeda's excesses and violations of
Islam. The Anbar Salvation Front becomes the first of several local
Sunni paramilitary organizations to aly itself with the U.S..<br />
<br />
<br />
-in the fall, despite
the success of the Sunni local self-defense organizations in Anbar and
Diyala, fighting al Qaeda alongside U.S. forces, al Qaeda manages to
assassinate some of their leaders.<br />
<br />
<b>Algeria</b><br />
<br />
June 11- suicide truck bomb kills soldiers at military barracks near Algiers. GSPC claims responsibility.<br />
<br />
<b>Life Sentences for the London underground bombers.</b><br />
<br />
July 11- four men arrested in the July 21 2005 London underground bombings receive life sentences.<br />
<br />
Sept 6- suicide blast kills twenty prior to vistit of President Boutefilka near Algiers.<br />
<br />
Sept. 7-8- 50 die in two conseutive bombings in Algeria. Al Qaeda in the Maghreb claims responsibility.<br />
<br />
<br />
Sept 8- GSPC claims responsibility for bombing of military barracks, killing 37 at Dellys, Algeria.<br />
<br />
Oct 7- Zareg Zoheir, mastermind of GSPC suicide bombings killed by Algerian police.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b><br />
<br />
<br />
2007- Pakistan rejects US claims that al Qaeda members are hiding in Pakistan.<br />
<br />
Oct 18- Pakistan PPP parry leader Benazir Bhutto survives bombing attack as she arrives in Karachi, returning from exile.<br />
<br />
<b>Three get life in Madrid train bombings.</b><br />
<br />
Oct 31- Madrid Court sentences three men to life in the Madrid train bombings.<br />
<br />
Dec. 12- suicide bombings on Algeria's supreme court and on an Algiers UN agency kill 40.<br />
<br />
Dec.
27- Benazir Bhutto is killed in a bombing attack on her motorcade while
campainging in Islamabad, Pakistan. Pakistani authorities say
Waziristan Al Qaeda leader Baitullah Mehsud is responsible.<br />
<br />
2008- Jan. 29- Abu Haith Al Libi, Al Qaeda military commander killed in drone strike in North Waziristan.<br />
<br />
<br />
March
31- at Guantanamo Bay, Al Qaeda operative Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani is
charged with crimes in the 1998 Kenya Embassy bombing.<br />
<br />
<b>Change of Tactics by Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2008- having alienated Sunnis in Iraq and driven their
fighters into the arms of the Americans, Al Qaeda changes its strategy
and rhetoric to attract local support. Al Nusra's local effectiveness
in Syria is an indirect result. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
-Oct 5- Abu Qaswarah, second in command of ISI (Al Qaeda in Iraq) is killed by US military in Mosul.<br />
<br />
<b>Khaled, architect of 9/11 in trial in US.</b><br />
<br />
June
6- Mohammed Sheikh Khaled, self-confessed planner of the 9/11 attacks,
tells a US tribunal at Gunatanmo Bay that he wants to die as a martyr.<br />
<br />
July 6- Salim Hamdan, a Yemeni and Osama Bin Laden's former driver, is convicted of war crimes at a tribunal in Gunatanamo Bay.<br />
<br />
-July 28- Abu Khebab al Masri, Al Qaeda expert on weapons of mass destruction killed in drone strike.<br />
<br />
<br />
Aug,
22-26 Shabab Islamist militia takes the port of Kismayo, Somalia's 3rd
largest city, leaving 70 dead with plans to join Al Qaeda. <br />
<br />
-Fall-
Najibullah Zazi and three others receive al Qaeda training in
Afghanistan; will soon plot to attack subway stations in New York City.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula arises from merger.</b> <br />
<br />
2009-
Jan-March- the Yemeni and Saudi affiliates of Al Qaeda merge into Al
Qaeda in the Arabian peninsula, affiliated by the Yemen-based US-Muslim
preacher, Al Awlaki. The Yemeni and Saudi affiliates of Al Qaeda merge into Al
Qaeda in the Arabian peninsula. AQAP formed from a merger of al Qaeda's
Yemeni and Saudi branches and led by Nasir ul-Wuhayshi. The Saudi group
had been effectively suppressed by the Saudi government, forcing its
members to seek sanctuary in Yemen.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-novak_7-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda_in_the_Arabian_Peninsula#cite_note-novak-7"> </a></sup>It is believed to have several hundred members.<br />
<br />
Feb. -Yemeni government Announces release of five Al Qaeda suspects on condition of good behaviour.<br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b><br />
<br />
2009 January
- Ethiopia completes the withdrawal of its troops. Fighters from the Al-Qaeda-linked
radical Islamist al-Shabab militia take control of the town of Baidoa,
formerly a key stronghold of the transitional government.<br />
<br />
March 19- Osama Bin Laden releases tape in which he urges Islamists to overthrow President Ahmed.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda in the Maghreb.</b><br />
<br />
2009 May - Algeria begins sending military equipment
to Mali in preparation for a joint operation against Al Qaeda in the Maghreb <br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b><br />
<br />
2009<b> </b>June
- Somalia's security minister and more than 20 other people are killed
in a suicide bombing at a hotel in Beledweyne, north of the capital
Mogadishu. Al Shabab, working closely with Al Qaeda, declares
responsibility. President Ahmed declares a state of emergency as
violence intensifies. Somali officials appeal to neighbouring countries
to send troops to Somalia, as government forces continue to battle
Islamist insurgents.<br />
<br />
<b>Lebanon</b><br />
<br />
July- Lebanese army arrests 10 suspected Al Qaeda operatives believed
to be planning attacks on UN peacekeepers in the south of Lebanon.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Baghdadi, head of Al Qaeda in Iraq killed near Tikrit.</b><br />
<br />
Dec 2009- the Islamic State of Iraq, sometimes called an
al Qaeda franchise, claims responsibility for a mass of bombings in
Baghdad killing 127, as well as other killings in August and October
killing 240.<br />
<br />
2010-
January- according to US Defense Secretary Robert Gates, Al Qaeda is
planning to destabilize Pakistan and ingite a nuclear war between
Pakistan and India. <br />
<br />
2010- April 18- leader of ISI or Al Qaeda in Iraq, Abu Omar al Baghdadi, killed outside Tikrit.<br />
<br />
"Since its effective creation in 2003, under the leadership of Abu Musab
al-Zarqawi, ISI had been happy to use al-Qaida’s brand name and its
money, but often ignored pleas for closer communication with central
command – even when they came from Bin Laden himself. In 2010, they
crossed a line: ISI appointed a new leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,
without prior approval from al-Qaida, whose senior leaders knew almost
nothing about the man – where he had come from, his military experience,
whether he could be trusted." http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida.<br />
<br />
<b>Failed Times Square bombing.</b><br />
<br />
May- Faisal Sahazad is arrested in a failed attempt to bomb Times Square using a van packed with explosives.<br />
<br />
<b>Yemen</b> <br />
<br />
2010- President Saleh says he will open talks with Al Qaeda militants provided they renounce violence.<br />
<br />
2010- June 19- Four al Qaeda gunmen dressed in women’s clothing attacked
an intelligence headquarters in Aden and freed several suspected al
Qaeda militants. On June 21 Yemen announced the arrest of the attack’s
mastermind. Security forces investigating the attack made several
arrests on June 25 in Aden during house-to-house searches. On July 11,
AQAP claimed that its Martyr Jamil al Anbari Brigade carried out the
attack. An AQAP statement stated the attack killed 24 officers and
soldiers, deviating from the government’s report of 11 killed. AQAP also
denied that the government had captured those responsible for the
attack<br />
<br />
<b>Mauretania</b><br />
<br />
2010 Jul 24, French-backed
Mauritanian military operations against al Qaeda fighters in the
Sahara desert wound up after four days of hunting Islamists deep
inside Mali.<br />
<br />
<br />
Aug
12- Osama Bin Laden's former cook and driver, Ibrahim al Qosi, is
sentenced to 14 years in prison for providing material support to
terrorism. A plea bargain is pending.<br />
<br />
<br />
2010- Sep 17, The Mauritanian
army launched an offensive against the North African branch of
al-Qaida in neighboring Mali. At least 12 militants died and five
Mauritanians were killed in the operation, which was launched
inside northern Mali with permission<br />
<br />
-Sept. -Najiibullah Zazi arrested for attempting to bomb subway stataions in new York City.<br />
<br />
<b>Conviction of would-be London Airline bombers</b><br />
<br />
-Sept-
conviction by a London court of the three Al Qaeda-linked bombers who
conspired to blow transatlantic passenger jets out of the air using
smuggled liquid explosives.<br />
<br />
- Sept- Drone
missile strike in Pakistan kills Ilyas Kashmiri, Al Qaeda military
commander and head of the Al Qaeda-affiliated Kashmir insurgent group.
Harkat-ul-Jihad-e-Islami. <br />
<br />
<b>Taliban Severs Ties with Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
-Taliban has severed its last ties with al Qaeda. 100 Al Qaeda fighter remain in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
<b>Yemen</b><br />
<br />
Oct-
government troops under US pressure fighting Al Qaeda in difficult,
rugged terrain of South Yemen, particularly in the Abyan region.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Massacres Christians</b> <br />
<br />
October 31, 2010- 52 are masscred in an Al Qaeda hostage taking and attack on a Syrian Christian chruch in Baghdad.<br />
<br />
<b>Maliki Alienates Sunnis in Iraq.</b> <br />
<br />
New elections in Iraq sow the seeds of future discontent. Iraqiyya, a
secular and religiously mixed bloc led by Ayad Allawi, a former British
exile, win a narrow majority of votes, but the Shia bloc run by current
prime minister, Nouri al-Maliki, regains power after forming a governing
coalitiion with Iranian-backed parties. Rather than handing key
security positions to his opponents as promised, Mr Maliki concentrates
power in his own hands, alienating the Sunni community. <br />
<br />
Dec. 4- Osama Bin Laden believed to be in Ghazni province, Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
Dec 8- Salh al Somali, coordinatior of Al Qaeda in Afhganistan and Pakistan witg Al Qaeda abroad is killed in a drone strike.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Underwear Airline Bomber Trained in Yemen under Al Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda claims responsibility for the Christmas attack on a US airliner by<br />
the 'underwear bomber.' Sana'a asks for the West's support in the war on terror.<br />
<br />
Dec
25- Umar Farouk Abdulmatallab, the "Underwear Bomber", arrested for
attempting to blow up Northwest Airlines Flight 253. He had been
trained in Yemen by 'Al Qaeda in the Arabian<br />
Peninsuala."<br />
<br />
<b>US State Department Concerned about Al Qaeda in Yemen.</b><br />
<br />
2011 January - US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visits to express "urgent concern" at al-Qaeda activities in Yemen.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="January_2011_Iraq_suicide_attacks"><b>2011 Suicide Attacks in Iraq.</b> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="January_2011_Iraq_suicide_attacks">January 2011 Iraq suicide attacks</span> </span>were a series of three consecutive suicide bombings in Iraq which left at least 133 dead.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
April 26, 2011: NATO reveals that Abu Hafs al-Najdi,
also known as Abdul Ghani, a regional commander in Afghanistan in charge
of suicide bombings and cash flow, was killed by an airstrike earlier
in the month.<br />
<br />
April 25, 2011: The Al unnah Al Nawabiah Mosque in Montreal
was among nine houses of prayer or Islamic institutes worldwide
considered by the U.S. military to be places where "known al-Qaeda
members were recruited, facilitated or trained," according to leaked
classified American intelligence documents.<br />
<br />
<b>US Special Forces Kill Osama Bin Laden.</b><br />
<br />
April 26, 2011: NATO reveals that Abu Hafs al-Najdi,
also known as Abdul Ghani, a regional commander in Afghanistan in
charge of suicide bombings and cash flow, was killed by an airstrike
earlier in the month.<br />
<br />
May 1, 2011: Osama Bin Laden, head
of Al Qaeda is killed when CIA paramilitaries and a Navy SEAL team
attack his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><b>Al Badri succeeds Al Zawi as head of Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><b> </b>May
16, 2010-Al Badri close to Abu Omar al-Baghdadi, the founder of the
Islamic State of Iraq succeeds him as emir of ISI after Omar’s death. </span><br />
<br />
<b>Syria- the Al Nusra Front- Independant fromAl Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
Aug. 2011: Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri threatens on an AQI website to carry out 100
attacks across Iraq to avenge the death of bin Laden three months
earlier.<br />
<br />
<b>US Assassinates Al Qaeda Preacher Awlaki</b><br />
<br />
Sept- US-born al-Qaeda leader Anwar al-Awlaki is assassinated by US forces.<br />
<br />
<b>Iraq and Syria</b> <br />
<br />
Oct.
2011: State Department lists al-Badri as a specially designated global
terrorist, offers a $10 million reward for information leading to his
location.<br />
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">2011- Syrian Jihadists begin to return from Iraq for the Syrian uprising. Some form the 'Al Nusra Front.' </span>"By this time, ISI had been pushed to the brink of collapse by US and
Iraqi forces – but the Syrian civil war gave the group a chance to
rebuild. As the conflict began to intensify, Baghdadi quietly dispatched
one of his junior officers, Abu Muhammad al-Joulani,
across the border in late<br />
<br />
2011 to take advantage of the chaos. Equipped
with funds, weapons, and some of ISI’s best soldiers, Joulani’s group –
which would soon be known as the Nusra Front – quickly became the most
formidable fighting force in Syria." http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Oct- in Homs and Rif Dimashq jihadists discuss Al Nusra's
founding and objectives. </span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">.</span><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="st" data-hveid="58"> 'Al Nusra' means "The Support Front for the People of the Levant [Greater Syria]" </span></span>At its founding, it had no affiliation with Al
Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2011- Dec.- veteran jihadists of deceased Al Qaeda in
Iraq leader Abu Musab al Zarqawi, leave Iraq, crossing the border to
Syria to join in the Arab Spring rebellion against the Assad regime.
Jabhat Al Nusra (JN) claims to fight on behalf of the Syria's
increasingly oppressed Sunni majority and against Syria's ruling Shia
Alawite sect and its allies which include Shia Iran and the Shia
Hezbollah organization and militia in Lebanon. </span><br />
<br />
<b>Yemen</b><br />
<br />
2011- Dec 13- Yemeni security forces arrested six “well-known” al Qaeda in the Arabian
Peninsula (AQAP) operatives in Yemen; among the operatives was
high-value target and leader of AQAP in al Jawf governorate, Musaed al
Barbari. A stockpile of weapons and “training manuals” were found in his
possession. The suspects, including Barbari, Mohamed Hussein Musayyib,
Mohammad Abdulkadir Ahmed al Shihri, Nader Ahmad Mohamed al Qubati,
Mohamed Muthana Ali al Amari, and Abdul Munaim Hamid Ali Abu Ghanem, had
been planning attacks targeting high-ranking security officials,
foreign embassies, and government buildings in Yemen. Also, the suspects
had been “actively recruiting fighters” to join Ansar al Sharia
militants fighting in Abyan and Shabwah governorates. Separately, three
fugitives who escaped from al Mansoura Central Security prison in Aden
on December 11 were captured <br />
<br />
<b>Iraq: Maliki moves against Sunni VP al-Hashemi. </b><br />
<br />
December, 2011- Mr Maliki issues an arrest warrant for Tariq al-Hashemi, Iraq's Sunni
vice-president, who flees abroad. The government claims Mr Hashemi has
been using his bodyguards for terrorism campaigns, but Iraq's Sunnis see
it as a sectarian smear campaign against his political rivals. Mr
Maliki replaces competent military leaders who had worked with the
Americans with political cronies, undermining the military's strength
just when the US is pulling out its forces.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>Syria: Al Nusra (JN).</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Dec. 23- suicide car bombs kill 44 in Damascus. Al Nusra claims responsibility.</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2102- Jan- al Nusra meetings continue in Rif Damashq and Homs.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">
2012- Jan 6- Al Nusra suicide bombing carried out by Abu al-Baraa al-Shami in Midan District of Damascus kills 26. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">-in late January, ``the jihadist group Jabhat al-Nusra li Ahl Ash-Sham, or
the Support Front for the People of Syria, announced its formation and
goal to bring down the regime of President Bashar Assad.`` -TIME.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">
2012- Jan 23- In its inaugural video Al Nusra claims an attack on
a government security installation in Idlib. "We are Syrian mujahideen,
back from various jihad fronts to restore
God's rule on the Earth and avenge the Syrians' violated honour and
spilled blood," a masked man declared in the video. (BBC)</span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">2012- 10 Feb Al Nusra (JN) suicide bombings kill 28 in Aleppo.</span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /> </span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2102- March 17- two car bombs in Damasucs kill 27.</span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> 2012- March-April- JN
expands after many leading jihadists from Lebanese Fatah al-Islam and
Palestinian groups joined the leadership and were able to secure
sponsorship of key jihadi ideologues including Sheikh Abu al-Mundhir
al-Shinqiti, Sheikh Abu Muhammad. JN may be responsible for bombings
carried out on this date.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
2012- May 29- On 29 May 2012, a mass execution was discovered near the
eastern city of Deir ez-Zor. The unidentified corpses of 13 government
soldiers had been discovered shot to death execution-style. JN (Al Nusra) later
claimed responsibility.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- June 17- Walid Ahmad al-Ayesh, described by Syrian authorities as
the "right hand" of the Al-Nusra Front, was killed when Syrian
authorities discovered his hiding place. He was reportedly responsible
for the making of car bombs that were used to attack Damascus in the
previous months. (Wikipedia)</span>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- June 27- JN blows up a pro-government TV station in the town of Drousha, just south of the capital Damascus.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- June 27- JN blows up a pro-government TV station in the town of Drousha, just south of the capital Damascus.</span><br />
<br />
2012- July- al-Baghdadi released an audio statement online announcing
that the group was returning to former strongholds from which US troops
and the Sons of Iraq had driven them in 2007 and 2008.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ap22July12_109-0"> </sup>He also declared the start of a new offensive in Iraq called <i>Breaking the Walls</i>, aimed at freeing members of the group held in Iraqi prisons.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ap22July12_109-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant#cite_note-ap22July12-109"></a></sup> Violence in Iraq had begun to escalate in June 2012, primarily with AQI's car bomb attacks, and by July 2013, monthly fatalities exceeded 1,000 for the first time since April 2008. (Wikipedia)<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b>Yemen Captures Al Qaeda Strongholds. </b><br />
<br />
2012 June - The army recaptures three al-Qaeda strongholds in the south - Shuqra, Zinjibar and Jaar.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> <b>AQI leader al Badri helps to establish al Nusra.</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012:<b> </b>Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri starts focusing attention on the jihad against
President Bashar Assad’s regime in Syria, where he reportedly helps to
establish an al-Qaeda affiliate, the al-Nusra Front, under the
leadership of a former Zarqawi deputy. </span>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Chechnya</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012-
Summer- Jaish al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar (Army of Emigrants and Helpers)-
is founded by Chechen fighters as a Jihadi group for foreign fighters.<b> </b></span></div>
<b> </b><br />
<b>Al Qaeda Offensive in Mali</b><br />
<br />
<br />
June 30, 2012- Armed Islamists destroy ancient tombs of Muslim saints that offend
their puritan views in the
desert city of Timbuktu and threaten to wipe out every religious shrine
there. They impose sharia, the strict and often brutal Islamic law.<br />
<br />
-summer of 2012, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb and Ansar Dine,
another radical Islamist group, took advantage of the instability and
an increasingly weak military in Mali and captured Timbuktu, Kidal, and
Gao, cities in the north. They implemented and brutally enforced
Shariah, or Islamic law.<br />
<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>Al Nusra in Syria.</b></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- July 15 (circa) JN executes popular TV news presenter Mohammed al-Saeed</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- August 12- a JN leader, Wael Mohammad al-Majdalawi, killed in a government operation in Damascus.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>Al Qaeda offshoot Kills US Ambassador in Bengazi, Libya. </b> </div>
<br />
September 2012- militants armed with antiaircraft weapons
and rocket-propelled grenades fired upon the American consulate in
Benghazi, Libya, killing U.S. ambassador to Libya Christopher Stevens
and three other embassy officials. U.S. secretary of state Hillary
Clinton said the U.S. believed that al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, a
group closely linked to al-Qaeda, orchestrated the attack.<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br />
<b>Iraq's Sunnis and the Arab Spring.</b> <br />
<br />
Fall, 2012- Belatedly inspired by the Arab Spring movements in neighbouring
countries, Sunnis begin a series of mass civil rights demonstrations,
alleging that they are treated as second-class citizens by Mr Maliki's
government. While their grievances get a limited hearing in the wider
world - Sunnis, after all, enjoyed privileged lives during the reign of
Saddam Hussein - Western diplomats in Baghdad concede that they have
some grounds for complaint. In particular, the protesters allege
harassment by the security forces and discrimination in getting
government jobs.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<b> </b><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Oct 3- three car bombs explode in central Aleppo killing 44.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"> 2012- 12 Oct- attacks on a Syrian air defense base near Aleppo; they reportedly destroyed buildings and sabotaged
radar and rockets after overrunning the base in cooperation with the
al-Fajr Islamic Movement.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-attack on the the Hanano
barracks in Aleppo city killing 11 government soldiers. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-attack on the the Suluq barracks in Raqqah wherw they claimed
killing 32 soldiers.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-other attacks in October, 2012: the military base at Wadi Deif and Taftanaz air base. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Progress of Al Nusra.</b> </span> </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-JN seized three army checkpoints around Saraqeb at the end of
October 2012, forcing the Syrian Army to withdraw from the area the next
day. In the battle, 28 Syrian soldiers were killed as well as five
Nusra fighters. Some of the captured soldiers were summarily executed
after being called "Assad dogs". (Wikipedia)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- early November- car bomb kills 2 in a rural development center in Sahl al-Ghab in Hama.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>-Islamist militias in Aleppo,
including the Al-Nusra and Al-Tawhid groups refuse to join the
Coalition of opposition groups denouncing it as a "conspiracy"</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">-suicide bombing in Mezzeh neighbourhood of Damascus kills
11 people.</span></div>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">-by the end of 2012- Al
Nusra units have become the shock troops of the armed Syrian
opposition, the best armed, funded, trained and disciplined of all the
rebel groups, Al Nusra can turn the tide wherever rebel lines run into
trouble.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> Dec. 11: The Obama administration declares Al Nusra with alleged ties to al-Qaida as a terrorist organization. <span style="font-size: small;"> A group of 29 opposition groups, including both fighting
units and civilian organizations signed an online petition calling for
demonstrations in its support.</span> </span> <br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. -US lists al-Nusra as a terrorist organisation, A group of 29 opposition groups, including both fighting
units and civilian organisations signed an online petition calling for
demonstrations in its support. </span> </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. Al Nusra reported to have entered Lebanon:
"Senior Lebanese security officials have confirmed that there has been a
noticeable increase in jihadist elements associated with al-Qaeda within
Lebanon. This increase is naturally linked to armed elements in Syria
and the stated and covert positions taken by some Lebanese political
forces towards the conflict in Damascus. However, the same security
apparatus has revealed in an exclusive interview that their
investigations have determined that the most recent statement made by Al
Nusra was authored in north Lebanon. The email address responsible for
posting the statement on the internet was traced to Tripoli, the capital
of the North Governorate and close to the Syrian border." Al-Monitor,
Dec. 24, 2102.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. 23- JN declares "no-fly-zone" over Aleppo, using 23 mm and 57 mm anti-aircraft guns.</span></div>
<br />
<b>Continued Marginalization of Sunnis in Iraq.</b> <br />
<br />
December, 2012- The arrest of Rafaie al-Esawi, a finance minister who is one of the last
prominent Sunnis in government, galvanises the protests further. The
growing sense of alienation with the government provides a ready source
of new recruits to al-Qaeda, which has re-energised in western Iraq
thanks to its campaign against President Bashar al-Assad in neighbouring
Syria. While many Sunnis do not share al-Qaeda's extreme religious
vision, they are willing to help it fight Mr Maliki's government.<br />
<br />
<b>Mali</b> <br />
<br />
December 20: The UN Security Council unanimously approves sending an
African-led force to help reconquer northern Mali from the Islamist
militants. However the Council says all possible diplomatic avenues must
be exhausted before force can be used.<br />
<br />
<b>French Offensive Against Al Qaeda in Mali</b> <br />
<u><br /></u>
<br />
2013 January - Islamist fighters capture the
central town of Konna and say they will push further south. President
Traore asks France for help and Paris responds by sending troops and
carrying out air strikes on rebel bases.<br />
<br />
January 2013- militants pushed into the southern part of Mali,
crossing into the area controlled by the government. France sent about
2,150 troops to Mali to push them back. By the end of January, French
troops pushed the militants out of Gao and Timbuktu, forcing them back
to northern Mali.<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>Al Qaeda Operation on Gas Plant in Almenas, Algeria.</b></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
January 16, 2013, Islamic militants entered neighboring Algeria from Mali
and took dozens of foreign hostages at the BP-controlled In Amenas gas
field. Algerian officials said the militants were members of an offshoot
of al-Qaeda called Al Mulathameen and were acting in retaliation for
France's intervention in Mali. On Jan. 17, Algerian troops stormed the
complex and attacked the kidnappers. By the end of the standoff on Jan.
20, 29 militants and 37 hostages were killed. Three Americans were among
the dead.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria: Al Nusra</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2013- January- JN takes
over the distribution of flour in Aleppo in the wake of the hoarding
and sale of flour by the Syrian Free Army. "The Nusra Front is outside
the FSA and has a reputation for discipline and honesty." BBC.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2013- February- Al Nusra fighters were involved in fighting in Safira
with regime reinforcements, preventing these forces from reaching their
destination of the city of Aleppo. (Al Jazeera)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">"Danish reports say at least 30 Danish Muslims have gone to fight with al
Nusra in Syria. Senior European intelligence officials have told me
that there is a wave of angry young Muslim men from all across Western
Europe going to Syria to join al Qaeda and fight Assad." The Daily Beast, Feb 23, 2013.</span></div>
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">-As of early 2013 al-Nusra is estimated to have around 5000 members. (Wikipedia) </span><br />
<br />
<b>Iraq: Spate of Al Qaeda Bombings.</b><br />
<br />
2013- Jan 16- Bombings in Kurdish Iraq Kill More Than 20.<b> </b> <br />
<br />
2013 February - About 35 people are killed
in two attacks. At least 19 died in a suicide bombing of an
anti-al-Qaeda militia in Taji, north of Baghdad, and at least 16 people
died in a raid on a police station in Kirkuk, northern Iraq.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"></span>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b>Syria</b> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">2013- March- JN has claimed responsibility for 57 of the 69 suicide attacks in Syria during the conflict. (Wikipedia).<sup> </sup></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">2013- March 13- </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Anti-regime
activists took to the streets of rebel-held Mayadeen in eastern Syria
on Wednesday for a third straight day to demand that jihadist Al-Nusra
Front fighters leave the town.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">March, 2013-<b> </b>Jihadists
rebels control large parts of the three provinces that make up
northeastern Syria and are working to install the foundations for an Islamic
state.Extremist rebels — mostly from large armed groups Ahrar al Sham
and Jabhat al Nusra took the provincial capital of Raqqa, Syria’s sixth
largest city and the first to fall into rebel hands. </span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<b>Iraq: Dramatic Increase in Anti Shia and Al Qaeda Attacks.</b><br />
<b> </b> <br />
2013
March - A series of coordinated car bomb and suicide attacks hit
government buildings in Baghdad, killing at least 24. Attacks and
explosions by al-Qaeda, mainly in Shia
neighbourhoods in and around Baghdad, kill 50 people on eve of the 10th
anniversary of the US-led invasion.<br />
<br />
2013- March 16- Car Bombs Kill 56 Civilians in Iraq. On the eve of the
ten year anniversary of the U.S. invasion, over a dozen bombings took
place throughout Baghdad, killing at least 56 people and wounding over
200 <br />
<br />
2013 April - At least 31 people are killed
and more than 200 others wounded in explosions in cities across the
country, including Kurdistan. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><b>FOUNDING OF ISIS: Power Struggle as ISIS claims authority over Al Nusra. </b></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">2013-
April 8- Abu Bakr Al Baghdadi, leader of 'The Islamic State of Iraq'
(Al Qaeda) releases video stating that JN leader Abu Mohammed al
Golani had been sent into Syria to announce the union of JN and 'The
Islamic State of Iraq' and that the latter had already been supplying JN
with finding and strategy for several months. From now the entire
organisation was to bear the name, "The Islamic State of Iraq and Al
Sham."</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">2013- April 9- JN leader Golani denies any such merger exists but that AN and Al Qaeda are still allies.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<b>Aharar Al Sham Distances itself from Al Nusra; Al Nusra Splits.</b><br />
<br />
From The Economist: "Hitherto the most prominent of the extreme Islamist groups has been
Jabhat al-Nusra, which may have 7,000 or so fighters. But recently it
has been bogged down in a power struggle with al-Qaeda in Iraq, led by
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. After Jabhat al-Nusra’s leaders, led by Abu
Muhammad al-Golani, refused to submit to his rule, the group split: a
more extreme branch merged with the Iraqi brethren, forming the Islamic
State of Iraq and al-Sham. It has recently clashed with other Syrian
groups, something Ahrar al-Sham has so far avoided. As Jabhat al-Nusra’s
clout has weakened, Ahrar al-Sham’s has grown stronger." (July 20, 2013)<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">2013- April 20- The Syrian National Coalition rejects any association with Al Qaeda:</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">“We reject the thoughts of al-Qaeda. Syria is a country where
moderate Islam prevails,” said Moaz al-Khatib, head of the main
opposition group, the Syrian National Coalition. “The bottom line is
that al-Qaeda’s ideology doesn’t suit us, and rebels in Syria have to
take a clear stance about this.” His call has been heeded. “We don’t
support the ideology of al-Nusra,” said Louay Meqdad, spokesman for the
rebel Free Syrian Army. “When we in Syria launched our jihad
(holy war) against the sectarian regime... we did not do so for the sake
of any allegiance to a man here or another there,” said the Syrian
Islamic Liberation Front, an umbrella group of some 20 rebel brigades,
including some of the most prominent. “Pledging allegiance to someone
who does not understand our reality does not serve our people or
nation.” (Al Arabiya, April 22, 2013)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"> </span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>The Boston Marathon Bombing.</b></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br />
April
15, 2013- Two bombs exploded at and near the finish line of the Boston
Marathon killing three and maiming dozens. Two suspects, the brothers,
Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev, who were inspired by Al Qaeda, were
hunted down, the former killed, the last seriously wounded. </div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
</div>
April
22, 2013- Two men of Muslim background arrested in Toronto and Montreal
before executing a plan to bomb a Via Rail Train between Toronto and New
York City.<br />
<br />
<b>Iraqi Army Attacks Iraqi Sunnis.</b><br />
<br />
April, 2013- Iraqi troops antagonise the Sunni community further when they attack a
protest camp in the town of Hawijah in northern Iraq, killing 53 people.
While the Iraqi government claims that the camp had become a haven for
al-Qaeda militants, who had fired on them first, the raid prompts
fighting that spills across northern Iraq. Gunmen briefly sieze one town
and declare it to be "liberated" from government rule.<br />
<br />
2013 May - Anti-Shia sectarian attacks continue, with 70 people killed in one day. </div>
<br />
<b>Al Zawahiri Defends al Qaeda's Al Nusra from claims of merger by ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
May 2013: Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri declares merger of AQI and al-Nusra under the
name Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), or alternatively, the
Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The perceived power grab
is rejected by al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri, who declares that
al-Nusra is the only al-Qaeda affiliate engaged in the anti-Assad
campaign. Al-Badri ignores al-Zawahiri’s instructions to focus on Iraq,
and instead continues operations in both countries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Somalia- Al Shebab</b><br />
<br />
2013- June 28: UN reports that the Al-Shabaab spiritual leader Sheikh Hassan
Dahir Aweys has turned himself in to pro-government officials in the
central town of Adado. Local elders assert that he and his militia are
stationed in the central Galmudug region, having fled from their own
comrades in Al-Shabaab-controlled territory after a bout of infighting.
According to the Shabelle Media Network, legislators and elders flew in
to the town in an attempt to persuade Aweys to negotiate with the
government. However, the elders indicate that their efforts were
unsuccessful<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS strengthened with jailbreak.</b><br />
<br />
July, 2013- The new joint Syrian-Iraqi al-Qaeda offshoot, known as the Islamic State
of Iraq and al Shams (ISIS), gains a major coup when it breaks nearly
500 fellow militants from Abu Ghraib jail in Baghdad. That ISIS can
break its way into what is supposedly the most secure jail in the
country shows how well-organised it has become. Many escapees rejoin
ISIS's ranks. <br />
<br />
<br />
2013- July Ahrar Al Sham (ISIS)<b> </b>now numbers about 15,000, the largest Jihadist umbrella group in Iraq.<b> </b>Some Ahrar al-Sham units that have been involved in heavy fighting
include the Qawafel al-Shuhada and Ansar al-Haqq Brigades (both in Khan
Sheikhoun, Idleb Province), the al-Tawhid wal-Iman Brigade (Maarrat
al-Noum an, Idleb Province), the Shahba Brigade (Aleppo City), the
Hassane bin Thabet Brigade (Darat Ezza, Aleppo Province), and the
Salahaddin and Abul-Fida Brigades (both in Hama City) (Wikipedia)<br />
<br />
<br />
2013-
Dec. ISIS captures a member of the Islamic Front -accusing him of
espionage- and tortures and murders him. "Within days, Syria’s major
rebel groups – including Nusra, the country’s
al-Qaida affiliate – banded together to declare war on Isis. Thousands
of militants were killed over the first few months of 2014, as battles
raged between Isis and the other rebel factions, with senior commanders
on both sides kidnapped, tortured and murdered. As their positions were
overrun, Isis was forced to retreat from western Syria. It began
consolidating its control over the east, the area closest to Iraq, and
the location of many of Syria’s oil fields. There, Nusra and Isis fought
viciously, in and around the city of Raqqa and along the banks of the
Euphrates."
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
December, 2013- Human Rights Watch issues a report criticising the Iraqi government over
the scale of its use of the death penalty, often in cases where
confessions have been extracted by torture. A disproportionate number of
those on death row appear to be Sunni insurgents. <br />
<br />
Jan. 2014- ISIS sends gunmen into the cities of Fallujah and Ramadi, west of
Baghdad. The Iraqi army surrounds both cities but does not go for an
all-out assault for fear of large civilian casualties that would
alienate locals still further. Five months later, both cities remain
outside of Iraqi security forces' control.<br />
<br />
<b>War Between ISIS and Al Nusra</b><br />
<br />
<br />
Winter/spring 2014<b>:</b> ISIS/ISIL battles al-Nusra and other rebel
groups for control of territory across northern Syria. Thousands die in
this conflict within the wider Syrian civil war. The State Department
says the group likely makes up “a significant portion of the estimated
26,000 violent extremist fighters in Syria.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS ATTACK ON FALLUJAH AND RAMADI</b><br />
<br />
Jan. 2014- ISIS sends gunmen into the cities of Fallujah and Ramadi, west of
Baghdad. The Iraqi army surrounds both cities but does not go for an
all-out assault for fear of large civilian casualties that would
alienate locals still further. Five months later, both cities remain
outside of Iraqi security forces' control.<br />
<br />
On 16 January 2014, Zawahiri’s envoy, Abu Khalid al-Suri, published a
message online. He tweeted that Isis was seeking to corrupt the jihad as
it had done in Iraq: militants should direct their bombs at the
infidels, he declared, not at their fellow jihadis. Seventeen days
later, Zawahiri played his final card: Isis was expelled from al-Qaida.<br />
<br />
Feb 3- Al Qaeda disowns ISIS, stating that its former affiliate “is not a branch of the al-Qaeda group [and
al-Qaeda] does not have an organizational relationship with it and is
not the group responsible for their actions.”<br />
<br />
<br />
"On 26
May 2014,(Al Qaeda Scholar) Maqdisi deemed the negotiations dead and, backed by
his fellow al-Qaida ideologues, issued a fatwa against Isis. “It has
become necessary that we tell the truth, after we exhausted
all the possibilities of advice and all hopes of making Isis return to
the path of truth,” Maqdisi wrote. The rebellious organisation, he
declared, had no “Islamic pretext”. Baghdadi, his commanders, and their
religious officials were “deviants” who had “disobeyed the orders of
their leaders and head scholars”. He instructed Isis’s soldiers to
defect to the Nusra Front, and decreed that no Islamic website should
host Isis messages."
www.theguardian.com/world<br />
2015/jun/10/how-isis-crippled-al-qaida<br />
<br />
June 5, 2014,<b> </b>ISIS/ISIL forces launch an attack against the Iraqi city of Samarra, but are expelled by Iraqi airstrikes.<br />
<br />
Jun. 9-10, 2014<b> </b>ISIS/ISIL forces capture control of most of Mosul,
Iraq’s second-largest city, and free hundreds of prisoners, including
some of its fighters. Iraqi forces reportedly flee. Prime Minister
Nouri al-Maliki declares a state of emergency.<br />
<br />
<br />
June 11, 2014- ISIS/ISIL forces take control of an oil refinery at
Baiji then move further down the highway to Baghdad and seize Tikrit,
just 95 miles north of the capital. Hundreds of thousands of people are
reported to have been displaced as a result of the fighting.<br />
<br />
June, 2014- ISIS takes over the cities of Mosul and Tikrit, also threatening
Baghdad. Five years from being all but vanquished, al-Qaeda's writ in
Iraq is as strong, if not stronger, as it was before. <br />
<br />
<b>ISIS DECLARES A CALIPHATE IN SYRIA AND IRAQ.</b> <br />
<br />
June 29, 2014- Isis declares a caliphate across controlled areas in Syria and Iraq
while calling for global allegiance. Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi declares
himself the leader – or caliph - of the 1.8 billion Muslims all over the
world.<br />
<br />
2014- July 2: Al-Baghdadi calls for all Muslims to gather to his new land and unite to “capture Rome” and own the world.<br />
<br />
2014 July 3: Isis takes control of al-Omar, Syria’s largest oil-field<br />
<br />
2015
July 5: Al-Baghdadi is recorded in his first public appearance, at the
Grand Mosque in Mosul, calling on all Muslims to obey him.<br />
<br />
2014- July 17: Isis claims to have killed 270 people after
seizing the Shaer gas field in Syria. Days later dozens of Iraqi
Christians leave after a warning by Isis that it will carry out a
similar attack if they do not convert to Islam.<br />
<br />
July 26: Isis blows up Jonah’s tomb, a holy site in Jewish heritage.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS TAKES SINJAR, MASSCRES YAZIDI CHRISTIANS. ENSLAVEMENT AND RAPE.</b> <br />
<br />
2014- August 3: Militants capture the city of Sinjar. They begin a
massacre that culminates in the deaths of over 5,000 men from the Yazidi
religious sect. Thousands of women are raped and sold into slavery.
200,000 Yazidi flee with as many as 50,000 becoming stranded on the
Sinjar Mountains surrounded by ISIS.<br />
<br />
August 6: Kurdish forces join the fight against Isis.<br />
<br />
<b>US BEGINS AIR STRIKES</b><br />
<br />
August 8: US
President Barack Obama authorizes the first air strikes, which
subsequently drop bombs outside the Kurdish city of Erbil, where Isis
movement had sparked a mass exodus.<br />
<br />
August 15: Isis massacres a Yazidi village in northern Iraq.<br />
<br />
<b>BEHEADING OF JAMES FOLEY</b><br />
<br />
August 19:
Isis’ media arm uploads a video entitled “Message to America,” showing
the beheading of the American journalist and hostage James Foley. The
masked militant, who speaks with a British accent, demands the US ceases
air strikes.<br />
<br />
2014- August 29: The UK Home Secretary
Theresa May raises the UK terror level to ‘severe’ in response to the
conflict in Iraq and Syria.<br />
<br />
<b>BEHEADING OF STEVEN SOTLOFF</b> <br />
<br />
2014- Sept <b>2:</b> Isis uploads another video featuring the same
militant (now known by his tabloid monikor ‘Jihadi John’), this time
showing the beheading of another US journalist, Steven Sotloff.<br />
<br />
<b>FORMATION OF WESTERN COALITION AGAINST ISIS</b> <br />
<br />
Sept 5: The US announces the formation of a coalition to
“destroy the threat posed by Isis”. The ten-nation coalition comprises
of US, Britain, France, Germany, Canada, Australia, Turkey, Italy,
Poland and Denmark.<br />
<br />
-Sept 11: The CIA announces that Isis now has between 20,000 to 31,500 fighters.<br />
<br />
The US announces numerous Aran nations have agreed to support the coalition. <br />
<br />
Sept 13- ISIS launches an offensive on the northern Syrian city district of Kobane,
home to a city of the same name, meeting a strenuous resistance from
its predominantly Kurdish population. A four-month siege ensues. <br />
<br />
Sept 13:
Isis releases another video, showing the execution of British aid
worker David Haines by ‘Jihadi John’. The militant threatens to kill
another British hostage if the UK continues its ‘evil alliance with
America.’<br />
<br />
Sept- 22, 2014: Isis executes Iraqi human rights activist Samira Salih al-Nuaimi<br />
<br />
Sept 23: US warplanes bomb Isis fighters in Raqqa, a northern Syrian city claimed by Isis to be its capital.<br />
<br />
Sept 24: Isis-affiliated Algerian militant group Jund al-Khiilafah kidnap and behead a French tourist, Hervé Gourdel<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS RELEASES MORE VIDEOS OF WESTERN HOSTAGES</b><br />
<br />
Sept 29: Isis releases a video showing the kidnapped British
journalist John Cantlie in an orange jumpsuit reading a seemingly
scripted message criticising President Obama. <br />
<br />
Oct 3: Isis releases a video showing the beheading of the
British aid worker Alan Henning as they threaten to kill another, the
American aid worker Peter Kassig, also known as Abdul Rahman Kassig <br />
<br />
Oct
13- ISIS English-language propaganda magazine, Dabiq, calls on jihadi
sympathisers to attack westerners "wherever they can be found."<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS IN BATTLE FOR KOHANI ON SYRIAN-TURKISH BORDER.</b> <br />
<br />
Oct 16: Isis is pushed back from the Syrian city of Kobani with help from US air strikes.<br />
<br />
Oct 20- a Canadian convert and IS sympathiser runs dwon two soldiers, killing one, with his car near Montreal.<br />
<br />
Oct 22- An Islamist gunmen kills a soldier<a href="http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ottawa-shooting-parliament-hill-gunman-shot-dead-1471321"> </a>guarding
the National War Memorial in Ottawa, before storming Canada's
parliament building. He is subsequently shot dead by security forces.<br />
<br />
Oct 29: Senior Australian figure and Isis recruiter Mohammad Ali Baryalei is reportedly killed in Syria.<br />
<br />
2014- Nov. 3: The Iraqi government announces Isis has killed 322 members of the Albu Minr tribe during a series of executions.<br />
<br />
Nov. 8: Iraqi government officials claim that Isis leader al-Baghdadi is wounded in a coalition air strike near Mosul.<br />
<span class="inline-image w460 leftAligned">
</span><br />
Nov 13: A recording of al-Baghdadi surfaces as in which he
claims the US military-led campaign is failing and that the coalition of
“America and its allies are terrified, weak and powerless” and to
“light the Earth with fire under all the tyrants and their soldiers and
supporters.”<br />
<br />
Nov 16: The group claims to have beheaded American aid worker Peter Kassig along with a dozen Syrian soldiers.<br />
<span class="inline-image w460 leftAligned">
</span><br />
Nov 29: At least 40 fighters on both sides are killed in
the city of Kobani during a battle between Syrian Kurds and Isis
militants.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS LOSES SINJAR</b><br />
<br />
2014- Dec 19: Isis is pushed out of most of the Sinjar region of Iraq.<br />
<br />
Dec
15- a self-professed Muslim cleric with a criminal record for sexual
assault, takes 17 hostages at a Sydney café claiming to for ISIS. Two
people and the attacker die after police storm the premises.<br />
<br />
Dec 21: The Sinjar offensive is considered a success with a Kurdish victory.<br />
<br />
Dec 24: Isis militants claim to shoot down and then capture
a Jordanian pilot in northern Syria. They demand the release of Sajida
al-Rishawi, an al-Qaeda prisoner held in Jordan over a failed suicide
bombing.<br />
<br />
2015- Jan 4: Isis attacks Saudi Arabia near the border city of Arar, killing four border guards.<br />
<br />
Jan 10: A video released shows Taliban fighters pledging allegiance to Isis.<br />
<br />
Jan 18: Isis releases about 250 Yazidis.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS BEHEADS JAPANESE HOSTAGE</b> <br />
<br />
2015-
Jan 20: The group demands a ransom of $200 million from Japan in
exchange for two Japanese hostages, Kenji Goto and Haruna Yokawa.<br />
<br />
Jan 24: A video is uploaded that seems to show Goto holding a photo of Yokawa, who has been beheaded.<br />
<br />
<b>KURDS TAKE KOHANE FROM ISIS</b><br />
<br />
Jan 26: Kurdish fighters take control of the Syrian border town of Kobane after fighting Isis for months.<br />
<br />
2015-
Jan 26- Renegade Taliban fightrs swear allegiance to Baghdadi and found
'The Islamic State in Afghanistan and Pakistan,' using Khorasan, the
ancient term for the Afghanistan region.<br />
<br />
Jan 31: A video is released showing the beheading of Kenji Goto by the British militant.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS RELEASES VIDEO OF JORDANIAN PILOT</b> <b>BURNED ALIVE IN A CAGE.</b><br />
<br />
2015-
Feb 3: Isis supporters post a video online of the captured Jordanian
military pilot Moath al-Kasasbeh being burned alive in a cage.<br />
<br />
Feb 5: The Jordanian military carries out a series of air strikes on Isis training centres and weapons depots.<br />
<br />
Feb 6: Isis claims a Jordanian air strike killed the American hostage Kayla Mueller.<br />
<br />
Feb 10: Kayla Mueller’s family announce she is dead after receiving confirmation from Isis.<br />
<br />
Feb 11: President Obama asks Congress to authorise use of military force against Isis.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS MOVES AGAINST EGYPTIAN CHRISTIANS.</b><br />
<br />
Feb 15: Libyan Isis militants release a video that appears to show the group beheading 21 Egyptian Christians.<br />
<br />
Feb 15- An IS sympathiser goes on a gun rampage in Copenhagen, Denmark, killing two, at freedom of speech event and a synagogue.<br />
<br />
Feb 15- IS Libyan branch releases footage showing the beheading of 21 Eguptian Christians on a beach.<br />
<br />
Feb 16: Egypt launches air strikes on Isis camps, training sites and weapon depots in retaliation for the beheadings.<br />
<br />
Feb 22: Isis releases a propaganda video of Kurdish Peshmerga troops in orange jumpsuits in cages.<br />
<br />
Feb 26:
The identity of terrorist known as ‘Jihadi John’ is revealed as
Mohammed Emwazi, a Kuwati-born Londoner.<br />
<br />
Feb 26- Isis also releases a video of
the destruction of historical artefacts in the Mosul Museum.<br />
<br />
2015- March 4: Isis releases images of a man thrown off a building as punishment for being gay.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS ACCEPTS ALLEGIANCE FROM BOKO HAREM IN NIGERIA.</b> <br />
<br />
March 12: Boko Harem, the Islamist militant group in northern Nigeria pledges allegiance to Isis. Isis accepts.<br />
<br />
March
18- ISIS claims responsibility for a deadly attack at the Bardo Museum
in Tunis, in which 22 people, including British, French and Italian
tourists are killed.<br />
<br />
2015- March 20: Isis takes responsibility for a suicide bombing that kills 137 people and wounds over 300 in Yemen.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS USES TUNIS TO CROSS INTO LIBYA</b><br />
<br />
March 24: Isis uses the town of Tataouine, a Tunisian town
that inspired the Star Wars city of Tattooine, as a waypoint to cross
into Libya.<br />
<br />
March 25: US-led coalition begins air strikes on the Iraqi city of Tikrit.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS LOSES TIKRIT TO IRAQI ARMY</b><br />
<br />
2015- April 1: Iraq declares victory over Isis in Tikrit.<br />
<br />
Apr 12: Iraqi government declares Tikrit free of Isis forces.<br />
<br />
Apr 18:
Fighters in Isis’ Wilayat Khorasan province claim responsibility for a
suicide bombing in Afghanistan that kills 33 people and injures over
100.<br />
<br />
Apr 19: Isis produces a video showing the
shooting and beheadings in Libya of two groups of prisoners, who are identified
as 30 Ethiopian Christians.<br />
<br />
2015- May 1: It is reported that Al-Baghdadi is recovering in Mosul<br />
<br />
May 2: Isis kills 300 Yazidi captives in Iraq.<br />
<br />
<b>Afghanistan</b><br />
<br />
April- newly arrivied ISIS and the Taliban declare Jihad against one another<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>ISIS CLAIMS FARLAND, TEXAS ATTACK.</b><br />
<br />
May 5: The group claims an attack in Garland, Texas, where two gunmen opened fire on a contest to draw the Prophet Mohamed.<br />
<br />
May 13: Abu Alaa Afri, the deputy leader of Isis, is killed in US-led coalition air strike.<br />
<br />
2015 May 16: US Special Ops kill Abu Sayaaf, a senior Isis commander, and capture his wife.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS CAPTURES RAMADI</b> <br />
<br />
May 17: Isis seizes the city of Ramadi in Iraq. Over 500 people are killed.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS CAPTURES PALMYRA</b><br />
<br />
May 20: Isis takes control of the ancient city of Palymyra, Syria.<br />
<br />
May 28: The group claims it has seized the Libyan Air Force airport in Sirte.<br />
<br />
<b>The Fight for Al Hasakah, Syria.</b><br />
<br />
2015- 30 May- after ISIL forces suffered collapse
in the western Al-Hasakah province, they launched an offensive on the
Syrian government-held portion of Al-Hasakah city. Although the Kurdish
YPG initially stayed out of the conflict, they eventually joined the
conflict on 5 June, after ISIL reached the southern gate of the city,
after a decision that the YPG would be recognized as a primary combatant
force in the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pushes_30-0"> (Wikipedia)</sup><br />
<br />
2015 June 1: A
militant posts a “selfie” online, which leads the US military to
identify and perform air strikes on a compound, destroying it in the
process.<br />
<br />
June 2: Isis closes the gates of a dam in Ramadi.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS BEHEADS 10 TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN</b><br />
<br />
June 7: Isis captures 10 Taliban militants in Afghanistan and beheads them.<br />
<br />
<b>KURDS TAKE POINTS IN NORTHERN SYRIA FROM ISIS</b> <br />
<br />
June 15: Syrian Kurdish fighters take the town of Tell Abyad from Isis.<br />
<br />
June 23: Kurds take back a key base north of Raqqa from Isis fighters<br />
<br />
On the same day, a video emerges showing a group of hostages being
split into three, before some are executed using a rocket-propelled
grenade, others are drowned in a cage and the rest are beheaded using
electrical charges.<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS TAKES PALMYRA</b> <br />
<br />
Militants begin destroying ancient monuments in the ancient city of Palmyra.<br />
<br />
June 26- Isis claims the killing of 38 people in a shooting at a Tunisian beach resort
and for a separate suicide bombing that kills at least 25 Shiite
worshipers in a Kuwait mosque.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pushes_30-0"> </sup>2015- 8 June- ISIL was pushed back from Al-Hasakah city, and Syrian
Army forces were able to establish a 12 kilometer (7.46 mi) buffer zone
around the southern portion of Al-Hasakah.<br />
<br />
<b>Afghanistan- ISIS and the death of Mullah Omar.</b><br />
<br />
July 31- Death of Taliban leader Mullah Omar, gives possible boost to ISIS over leaderless Taliban factions. <br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<br />
11 August. ISIS loses Al Hasakah to Syrian Government forces. The US-led Coalition conducted an airstrike on a village
east of Al-Hasakah city, blowing up a building that ISIL was using for a
meeting, which killed over 50 ISIL militants.
On 12 August, ISIL reportedly publicly shot and executed more than 90
of its own members as punishment for escaping the battlefield. ISIL
claimed that the fighters' desertion was the main cause of ISIL's loss
at the Battle of Al-Hasakah.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85"> </sup>It
was reported on 16 August that ISIL had executed four more of its own
fighters for allegedly collaborating with the Coalition. (Wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Aug 19- Militants from Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) beheaded one of
Syria's most prominent antiquities scholars in the ancient town of
Palmyra, then hung his body from one of the town's Roman columns, Syrian
state media and an activist group said Wednesday. The killing of 81-year-old Khaled al-Asaad was the latest atrocity
perpetrated by the militant group, which has captured a third of both
Syria and neighbouring Iraq and declared a self-styled "caliphate" on
the territory it controls.<br />
<br />
Aug 24- Islamic State militants have released photos showing what appears to be
the destruction of the ancient Baal Shamin temple in Syria's Palmyra, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site recently captured and vandalized by the
jihadists.<br />
<br />
2015- Aug 30- ISIS blows up 2000 year old Temple of Bel in Palmyra.<br />
<br />
<i>thanks to BBC Timelines and: </i><br />
<i>TheIndependent on Sunday </i><br />
<i>http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/timeline-al-qaeda-linked-terrorists-move-closer-establishing-islamic </i><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23283079 </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Wikipedia, </span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf">http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.understandingwar.org/">http://www.understandingwar.org/</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/04/al-qaeda-jabhat-al-nusra-merge.html</span></div>
<br />
<i> http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/10895006/Timeline-How-al-Qaeda-regained-its-hold-in-Iraq.html </i><br />
<i> -http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/05/02/f-al-qaeda-timeline.html</i><br />
<i><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">- Infoplease.com</a> <a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu</a></i><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-17019006661899954652015-09-12T19:59:00.000-07:002015-09-14T19:11:57.609-07:00ISIS and History: Trying to Explain the Inexplicable. Sects and Scholars.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"> </a>HISTORY IN THE NEWS<br />
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<img alt="Image result for Thomas Cole empire destruction" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="YtrTfE8qc3OM_M:" 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" 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<br />
The News is History. History is the News.<br />
<br />
ISIS AND HISTORY: TRYING TO EXPLAIN THE INEXPLICABLE.<br />
<br />
<u>Sects and Scholars</u><br />
<br />
<br />
<i>Introduction</i><br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for islamic state isis" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQTnSluJDv99kph1e7gFVYQXylJ-0FN1Q9Qlu00zk_Dj9joIVBEoQ" data-sz="f" name="Mp8fo57krvQcLM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQTnSluJDv99kph1e7gFVYQXylJ-0FN1Q9Qlu00zk_Dj9joIVBEoQ" style="height: 174px; margin-left: -13px; margin-right: -13px; margin-top: 0px; width: 262px;" /><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
History In The News is returning to look at the so-called Islamic State in terms of its own history but also in terms broader developments since the early middle ages.
In order, perhaps, to shed a little light on the darkness of what seems
otherwise terrible and inexplicable. For little is understood about
ISIS, its success against all odds and the
improbable establishment of a geographic domain in defiance of the West
and of the modern Middle East.<br />
<i><br /></i>
<i></i><br />
<i> MOST OF ISIS' CURRENT LEADERSHIP WERE PREVIOUSLY HIGH RANKING OFFICERS UNDER SADDAM HUSSEIN, A FACT WHICH SUGGESTS THEIR UNPRECEDENTED BRUTALITY COMES NOT ONLY FROM THEIR EXPLOITIVE AND PARTIAL USE OF ISLAMIC SCRIPTURE BUT ALSO FROM A MURDEROUS SECULAR DICTATORSHIP. STILL, THERE'S NO DEEPER EXPLANATION FOR ISIS, SAVE PERHAPS THAT IT IS SOMETHING ATAVISTIC, A PIECE OF ANCIENT HISTORY COME BACK TO BITE US, OR PERHAPS WORSE, AN INDICATION THAT WE HAVE NOT YET ENTIRELY EMERGED FROM THE BARBARISM OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.</i><br />
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I want to start by looking at the terror group's claims to Islam and what other Muslims have to say about Islam and ISIS. <br />
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<img class="irc_mi" src="http://www.catholic.org/files/images/media/2014/08/12/14078552671961_700.jpg" height="393" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="393" /><br />
<br />
<i>2000 years later.</i><br />
<br />
It's difficult to look at a map of the world and recall that the entire Islamic world from Morocco to the Indus comprises the remains of a collapsed empire. Modern Muslims didn't choose this, they live in it. On this shadow of a former world the West imposed modern ideas and artificial borders serving its own interests. Western backed experiments with secular rule have failed or ended with repressive local dictatorships- regimes which have kept order but which haven't created much to call their own. In the end, the cost has been heaviest for Islam and Islamic civilization. The West has done its damage, most recently in the Iraq war of 2013-2011. But now the militant Islamist reaction against everything western is damaging Islam itself in new and terrible ways. A reaction which has reached its nadir with ISIS. <br />
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><img alt="Image result for Map of Umayyad Empire" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="huAlcJ5fNXcJuM:" 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" style="height: 172px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 283px;" /><br />
<br />
<i>The Umayyad Empire.</i> <br />
<br />
<br />
A look at ISIS is a look into nihilism. The group seems to have no real content. In the New York Review of Books of August 13, there appeared an excellent piece, <i>The Mystery of Isis</i>, the byline consisting only of "Anonymous." The author, an experienced Middle East hand, apparently fears retribution. But there wasn't anything insulting about ISIS that hasn't already been written. More remarkable was the lengthy and systematic demonstration that all the theories about ISIS and its survival have proven false. Reading it, I found myself looking for a payoff and there was none. Brilliantly, there was no answer.<br />
<br />
Near the conclusion, the author writes,<br />
<br />
"The thinkers, tacticians, soldiers, and leaders of the movement we know as <acronym>ISIS</acronym>
are not great strategists; their policies are often haphazard,
reckless, even preposterous; regardless of whether their government is,
as some argue, skillful, or as others imply, hapless, it is not
delivering genuine economic growth or sustainable social justice. The
theology, principles, and ethics of the <acronym>ISIS</acronym> leaders are neither robust nor defensible. Our analytical spade hits bedrock very fast.<br />
I
have often been tempted to argue that we simply need more and better
information. But that is to underestimate the alien and bewildering
nature of this phenomenon. To take only one example, five years ago not
even the most austere Salafi theorists advocated the reintroduction of
slavery; but <acronym>ISIS</acronym> has in fact imposed it. Nothing
since the triumph of the Vandals in Roman North Africa has seemed so
sudden, incomprehensible, and difficult to reverse as the rise of <acronym>ISIS</acronym>.
None of our analysts, soldiers, diplomats, intelligence officers,
politicians, or journalists has yet produced an explanation rich
enough—even in hindsight—to have predicted the movement’s rise." -<i>Anonymous</i><br />
<br />
<i>Islam, Christianity and Judaism, Religions of the Sword.</i><br />
<br />
Muslims outraged by ISIS tend to say that ISIS is not Islamic and has nothing to do with Islam because Islam is a religion of peace and the terror group's atrocities run counter to the spirit of the faith and its teachings. But to say that ISIS has nothing to do with Islam is like saying that the late Reverend Phelps of the Westboro Baptist Church in the United States had nothing to do with Christianity. Reverend Phelps preached a particular form of fundamentalist, sectarian Christian hatred much as ISIS murders and exterminates in the name of a fundamentalist form of Islam. Reverend Phelps didn't kill people but his demonstrations targeted gay people, the bereaved families of dead soldiers and so on in a way that was intended to cause extreme suffering. <i> </i><br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" height="393" src="https://richarddawkins.net/file/2014/03/Phelps_vert-4f9c607f59f4c2901340f508a0c75c330210ae1e-s6-c30.jpg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="295" /><br />
<br />
<i>The late The Rev. Fred Phelps</i><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for Ibn Taymiyyah" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQVqLjvHdHCd7XZpBCbAJuALgs7W9J0VKwHY3Uz2CJcODjtZUX-" data-sz="f" name="MOZJ4SzEJhRy1M:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQVqLjvHdHCd7XZpBCbAJuALgs7W9J0VKwHY3Uz2CJcODjtZUX-" style="height: 183px; margin-left: -18px; margin-right: -26px; margin-top: 0px; width: 275px;" /><br />
<br />
<i>ISIS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi</i><br />
<br />
So ISIS has no more to do with the Muslim spirit of peace than Reverend Phelps had to do with the Christian spirit love. But ISIS is a phenomenon of Islam as Reverend Phelps was a phenomenon of Christianity. Christianity and Islam both contain doctrines of conquest with violence as well as injunctions to love and understanding. The Koran and the Judeo Christian Bible alike contain verses calling for violent division and passages urging peace and fellow feeling. Even the words of Jesus convey violent damnation along with acceptance and humility.<br />
<br />
The texts of Islam and of Judeo-Christianity are civilized and also barbaric. It depends on what you choose to emphasize. <br />
<br />
So, to maintain that ISIS is Islamic or is nor Islamic gets us nowhere.<br />
<br />
The important thing is that it has something to do with Islam. Trying to decipher what in Islam ISIS has used to justify itself and how other Muslims view ISIS in terms of Islam is like trying to start a discussion in a brawl. There's a lot of emotion, a lot of name calling and a lot of blame. Also, I suspect, a good deal of fear.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS: a sort of historical descent.</b><br />
<br />
To begin with, ISIS does have a line of historical descent, in terms of groups, sects and scholars. I say <i>historical</i> (and not religious) because I'm only referring to its religious claims and the claims of what many Muslims say about ISIS. I'm not one to say what is and is not Islamic.<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><br />
Starting from the time of Mohammed, it moves chronologically something like this: Karijites, Takfiris, Ibn Hanbal, Safism, the cult of the Mahdi, Ibn Tayamiyya, Wahhabism and more recently, the scholar Maqdisi. All of these names and terms have, in one way or another, been entangled with ISIS. In fact ISIS claims most though not all of them. <br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" src="http://www2.palomar.edu/users/mhudelson/WorksofArt/29Islamic/4377.jpg" height="393" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="263" /><br />
The Companions of the Prophet<br />
<br />
In a little more detail,the <i>Karijites</i> were 'separatists' or 'secessionists.' During the time of the Prophet and after his death they tried to out-do Mohamed in purity and refused to accept anyone's authority but their own, not even the authority of the Caliphate. A little later arose the phenomenon of the <i>Takfiris-</i> those who take it upon themselves to excommunicate others- effectively to cast them out of Islam. In the eighth century Mahdism or the cult of a Muslim Apocalypse claimed to predict the arrival of a savior during end times. Also in the eighth century, the scholar <i>Ibn Hanbal </i>made the first significant attempt to return Islam to its foundations in the Quran. In other words, fundamentalism. Around the ninth century, <i>Salafism </i>distinguished itself from the main schools of Islam, dictating practice according to the ways of the <i>Salaf</i>, or ancestors from the early times of the Prophet. Around 1300, the scholar <i>Ibn Tayamiyya </i>radicalized the ideas of <i>Hanbal </i>with <i>Takfiri </i>principles, in other words declaring excommunication and even war on those who were not purely Islamic. He also stressed the ways of the ancestors, the <i>Salaf </i> and gave Salafism doctrinal backing. In the eighteenth century Wahhabism stormed out of the Najd of central Arabia to put an end to all the impurities that it saw attaching to Islam, in particular the worship of images, idols and saints. Wahabbism is seen as a strict, Saudi Arabian form of Salafism. The contemporary Salafi scholar Abu Mohamed Maqdisi preaches in the tradition of Ibn Tayamiyya. Maqdisi is also the spiritual guide of Al Qaeda and mentor to 'Al Qaeda in Iraq' leader, Aby Musab al Zarqawi. But Maqdisi distanced himself from the murderous Zarqawi for being too <i>Taqfiri</i> or too much of an "excommunicator." Maqdisi has also rejected the yet bloodier and more extreme 'Islamic Caliphate' or ISIS. <br />
<br />
<b>The Karijites</b><br />
<i> </i> <br />
Many Muslims disdain ISIS as a band of <i>Karijites. </i>ISIS doesn't seem to have referred to itself as <i>Karijite </i>since the word is usually a term of abuse. However it does refer to a group of secessionists in the early days of Islam. The first <i>Karijite was </i>Huruqus ibn Zuhair. After Mohamed defeated a Bedouin tribe near Mecca in 630, he offered them booty as an incentive for converting to Islam. One of Mohamed's followers, Ibn Huruqus, criticized Mohamed for making the offer and Mohamed predicted, correctly, that Huruqus would betray his memory.<br />
<br />
Years later, in 657, when the sects of Sunni and Shia Islam had split apart, the forces of the Shia under Ali Ibn Talib and the Sunni army under Ibn Muwawiya fought the battle of Siffin at Raqqa, Syria. The fighting ended in a draw and negotiations for peace. Ibn Huruqus, once again the dissenter, declared to his chief, Ali, that it was wrong to negotiate because only Allah could decide on peace.This time his objection ended in a full scale secession as he took his party of <i>Karajites, </i>literally meaning 'separatists,' or 'deviants' to Narawhan, Iraq, in the region of the Shia. When one of Ali's governors attempted to persuade them through discussion, they killed him along with his pregnant wife. The <i>Karihites</i> spread terror around Narahwan subjecting the locals to religious
interrogation, killing them if their answers were unsatisfactory. In 661
they assassinated Ali himself, in the mosque at Kufa, Iraq. <br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" src="http://static2.wikia.nocookie.net/__cb20071106114353/genealogy/images/9/93/Battle_of_Siffin1.jpg" height="393" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="209" /><br />
<br />
<i>The Battle of Siffin</i><br />
<br />
No one was good enough for Huruqus, not even Mohamed. His <i>Karihites</i> rejected the aiuthority of Mohamed's tribe, the Qurayshi; of his son in law Ali and the Shia; of his companion Abu Bakr and of the Calipahte. Perfection alone qualified you for leadership, sin was grounds for disqualification, even death.<br />
<br />
Here is an excellent diagram of Muslim sects from Mohamed to the present day, where you can see the Karijites branching off near the very beginning: http://www.informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/islamic-sects/<br />
<br />
In the manner of the Karijites, ISIS accepts no current religious authority. According to a report in The Guardian, ISIS in its original form, The Islamic Staten of Iraq, was so desperate for recruits after the Sunni rebellion against them an the US troop surge of 2007-2008 that the group lowered its qualifications for entry from thorough knowledge if Islam to barely any qualifications at all. Following suit, the fully evovled ISIS meets disagreement and difference not with debate but with extermination. In an Op Ed piece in the New York Times the
Saudi researchers, Nawaf Obaid and Saud Al-Sarhan write that "ISIS follows an ideology that is a continuation of a crude sect known as
the Kharijites, or the ones that “deviated” from the Muslim community
during the reign of the fourth Caliph Ali." But ISIS, as far as I can tell, has never touted the ancient secessionists. Perhaps even for ISIS the connotations of <i>Karijite </i>make for bad press.<br />
<br />
However it has to be said that the setting of the Battle of Siffin (where Hurukus and his followers seceeded) is eerie- it took place at what is modern day Raqqa, Syria, the capital of ISIS' alleged Caliphate. And the ISIS magazine Dabiq cites a <i>hadith </i>(or commentary on the Koran) by the scholar Ibn Hanbal that plunder taken in war is a gift of God- which might in turn be linked to Huruqus' censure of Mohamed for offering loot, 'a gift of God' in return for conversion.<br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" src="http://d.ibtimes.co.uk/en/full/1444968/isis-militants-parade-raqqa-syria.jpg?w=700" height="351" style="margin-top: 21px;" width="624" /><br />
<br />
<i>ISIS parades in Raqqa.</i><br />
<br />
Outraged Muslims are right to compare ISIS to the Kaijites. What doctrine ISIS seems to have is almost Karijite. Perhaps it's the sheer anarchy in Syria that has brought them further back, in spirit, to the dark days of earliest Islam. The excitable journalist Graeme Wood brings this up in his piece <i>What ISIS Wants</i>, in <i>The Atlantic (</i>in which he<i> </i>stumbles into the mire by giving a pat answer to the unasnwerable question as to whether ISIS is 'Islamic,' by saying that it is.) Citing Princeton scholar Bernard Haykel, Wood writes that "the fighters of the Islamic State are authentic
throwbacks to early Islam and are faithfully reproducing its norms of
war...'Slavery, crucifixion, and beheadings...' This, at least, seems about right. Beheading , apparentl, is justified by the Quranic verse: “So, when you meet (to wage jihad in God’s cause) those who disbelieve,
smite at their necks until you have killed and wounded many of them,
then bind a bond firmly.”<br />
<br />
Oddly, Wood never mentions the Karijites. But there, almost exactly, is where ISIS wants start over: during the unyielding wars for the Caliphate right after Mohamed's death. Adam Hoffman (writing for the Tony Blair Faith Foundation) quotes an ISIS statement that "with this declaration of [a caliphate],
it is incumbent upon all Muslims to pledge allegiance to the caliph
Ibrahim [al-Baghdadi] and support him (may Allah preserve him). The
legality of all [other] emirates, groups, states, and organisations,
becomes null by the expansion of the [caliphate's] authority and arrival
of its troops to their areas." Islamic scholars have agreed that ISIS hasn't the religious or intellectual qualifications to make such a pronouncement and that a Caliphate can only be reached through consensus on the part of Muslim authorities around the world. Even ISIS scholar Turki al Binali has warned hi superiors that if ISIS doesn't obtain the approval of leading Islamic Scholars, its caliphate may not survive. <br />
<br />
ON the other hand, why should ISIS care about contemporary, international Islam if we're all back in Syria and Iraq around 661 AD? <br />
<br />
<b>Takfiris</b><br />
<br />
Middle East hand Robert Baer has written, "A <i>takfiri'</i>s mission is to re-create the Caliphate according to a literal interpretation of the Qur'an." In which case ISIS would definitely describe itself as <i>Takfiri. </i>In fact ISIS has its own "Creed and Methodology of <i>Takfir." </i> <i>Takfir </i>doesn't refer to a sect but to a kind of behavior. It means to excommunicate or to cast out. To divide the world between saved and damned, believers and unbelievers. It means uncompromising exclusion, usually violent. <i>Takfiri </i>has been used to describe at least one of the early Caliphs. The term seems to have been in use in the early days of Islam and was used (and has been ever since) to condemn the the <i>Karijites (</i>unabashed <i>Taqfiris)</i>. Muslim individuals and sects deemed too fanatical or judgmental have, in modern times, been condemned as <i>Takfiris</i>. However the term doesn't carry the negative weight <i>of Karijite. </i>Writes Mohamed Haniff Hassan, on his blog, counterideology2, "One of the many criticisms directed against ISIS is its permissiveness in the practice of takfir (declaring a Muslim as apostate) which makes its status as a takfiri group deserved. This equates ISIS to the Kharijites who remain traditionally denounced and despised by Sunni and Salafi Muslims."<br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for Takfir" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="PcEdvTZFDuYZ3M:" 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" style="height: 141px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 240px;" /><br />
<br />
<b>The ISIS Apocalypse</b><br />
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<img alt="Image result for Sunni Mahdi" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="_k9l7g7_Bs2SkM:" 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<b> </b>Around 745, about a century after the foundation of the first Umayad Caliphate, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids. In support their new ideology, the Abbasid Caliphate developed the doctrine of an apocalypse. They added to the scriptural Second Coming of Jesus (part of the Quran) the arrival of the <i>Mahdi</i>, or 'rightly guided one' who would lead an army from Khorasan, or Afghanistan, eastward, waging war and <i>Takfir, </i>purging the world of evil, all of it culminating in an epic battle complete with Satan and an Antichrist and making way, in the end, for the day of judgment and the Quranic arrival of Jesus. For ISIS, according to Hoffman, the setting of the apocalyptic end times is Syria and it's around the city of Dabiq (for which their magazine is named) near Aleppo, that the forces of the new Caliphate of a purified Islam will defeat the forces of the 'New Rome' or the West. The drama and romance, the touted historicity and prophetic fulfillment of ISIS's particular war on sacred battlefields has swelled its recruitment. And the group's capture of land around Dubiq made ISIS fighters nearly hysterical. It also appears that the 'End Times,' if the End Times are now, permit the most extreme forms of violence. <br />
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<img alt="Image result for ISIS Dabiq" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="AYB8DHgFWGVc7M:" 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" style="height: 174px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 290px;" /> <br />
<i>Covers of 'Dabiq', the ISIS magazine.</i> <br />
<br />
At this point we might look at ISIS' similarity to Nazism. The Nazis invented what might be called a parasitic ideology. That is, an ideology which preys on other ideologies adding nothing if its own. Nazism was cobbled with elements of capitalism, Bolshevism, socialism, racial theory, traditional antisemitism, Norse mythology, bits and pieces of Nietzsche as well as references to Frederick the Great, The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and so on to create a thought system tailored to the particular needs of Hitler's Reich but void of any philosophical foundation. ISIS, as I will try to show, preys on several Muslim ideas and systems of thought. For example, it uses the Abbasid apocalypse as Hitler exploited Norse mythology or Medieval German history. Among other teachings it uses those of the generally revered Ahmad ban Hanbal.<br />
<br />
<b>Ibn Hanbal</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b> <b> </b>It's not surprising that the revolutionary spirit of the early Abbasid Caliphate that produced the Muslim Apocalypse also produced the scholar Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, (780-855). Hanbal launched the first major reform of Islam with the <i>Hanbali Code</i> by which he determined that Islamic law, meaning Sharia law, had to derive directly from the Quran and the <i>Sunna</i>, (laws based on Mohamed's own words) and not from the legal frameworks that had since gathered around the original law as written in the Quran. Almost all modern radical Sunnis, reformist or Islamist and jihadi, refer ultimately to Hanbal, as do many mainstream Sunnis. Again, the violent and the peaceful often refer the same sources. The word of Hanbal has been used repeatedly by Muslim scholars to condemn ISIS and by ISIS to support its own practices. As already seen, ISIS has quoted Hanbal on plunder being a gift of God. There are Muslims who believe that Hanbal declared <i>Takfir</i> against certain sects and others who say that he was tolerant and never declared <i>Takfir.</i><br />
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<i><img alt="Image result for Ibn Hanbal" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTobDUJI67aT5Iz__mr6w-ostOHXLdYpSHkvIaGQ5oju_Iwh74BtQ" data-sz="f" name="SBvhxEjg13s3RM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTobDUJI67aT5Iz__mr6w-ostOHXLdYpSHkvIaGQ5oju_Iwh74BtQ" style="height: 155px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 135px;" /> </i><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Salafism </b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hanbal was a source for one strain of Islam which appeared around 800 AD. Salafism stressed practice according to the ways of the ancestors, or the <i>Salaf</i>,
those closely associated with Mohamed for the first three generations</span>. The <i>Salafi </i>or People of the Traditions (of the prophet), the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>ashab al-hadith</i>- according to Oxford Islamic Studies Online "insisted on the authority of the traditions (hadith)
attributed to the Prophet
Muhammad, as against the informed “opinions” (ray) on which
many contemporary juristic schools based their legal reasoning." <i>Salafis</i> are insulted by the claims of ISIS to the Salafist tradition. Graeme Wood, in <i>What ISIS Wants </i>observes that ISIS leader </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"Baghdadi is Salafi. The term <i>Salafi</i> has been villainized, in part
because authentic villains have ridden into battle waving the Salafi
banner. But most Salafis are not jihadists, and most adhere to sects
that reject the Islamic State. They are, as (scholar Bernard) Haykel notes, committed to
expanding <i>Dar al-Islam</i>, the land of Islam...Their first priority is personal
purification and religious observance, and they believe anything that
thwarts those goals—such as causing war or unrest that would disrupt
lives and prayer and scholarship—is forbidden." </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><img class="irc_mi" height="393" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Siyer-i_Nebi_298a.jpg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="251" /> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>Mohammed and his companions on the way to Mecca.</i> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Distancing Saudi<i> Salafis</i> from the Salafist claims of ISIS, Saudi researchers Obaid and Al Sarhan write, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"The version of Salafism applied in
Saudi courts and religious institutions was formulated by one of the
four leading Muslim jurists, the ninth-century scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
Hanbali law stands firmly against sedition, shedding of blood, and
forcible conversion." </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Even Al Qaeda chief Zawihiri and A Qaeda's official scholar Abu </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mohamed Maqdisi
profess militant, Jihadist Salafism while repudiating the Salafist claims of
ISIS. As always the problem is the group's excesses and atrocities. Maqdisi, once the mentor of Al Zarqawi, the homicidal leader of Al Qaeda in Iraq who slaughtered Shia and other Muslims, advised Zarqawi that he was going too far. Zarqawi was using <i>Taqfir </i>to excess, declaring it along with a death sentence on his coreligionists of for their "sins" or imperfections- the same intolerance practiced by the Karijites. Maqdisi finally distanced himself from Zarqawi. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Like the Nazis, it appears, ISIS picks and chooses
whatever it finds useful, in this case anything to help start the war
all over again from the days days of the early Caliphate and without
doctrinal or ethical restraint. </span><br />
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ISIS, like Nazism has one particular advantage - boldness and simplicity. Both are presented as something straight forward and uncomplicated with powerful, simple images. <br />
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<b>The Ashari School</b><br />
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<b> </b>Around 900 AD, Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari founded the Ashari School of Islam which was distinct from the Hanbali school for its moderation. The Asharis were reluctant to use <i>Takfir </i>and the Al Azhar University in Cairo which follows the Ashari school has refused to use <i>Takfir </i>even against ISIS. But only, it seems, on doctrinal grounds, not on moral grounds. The Grand Mufti of Al Azhar is the most respected living authority in Sunni Islam, at least in terms of mainstream Sunni tradition. ISIS however, is bringing out the <i>Takfiri</i> in everyone, even Al Azhar which, although it claims not to believe in <i>Takfir (</i>excommunication), has lashed out at ISIS with its own bloody-minded appeals to scripture. In February or this year, according to <i>Al Arabiya, "</i>Al-Azhar...has called
for the killing and crucifixion of militants from the Islamic State of
Iraq and Syria (ISIS), expressing outrage over their murder of a
Jordanian pilot. In a statement after the burning alive of Moaz
al-Kassasbeh, the Cairo-based authority called for the “killing,
crucifixion and chopping of the limbs of ISIS terrorists.” Head of al-Azhar, Sheikh Ahmed al-Tayib, expressed his "strong dismay at this cowardly act". This "requires the punishment mentioned in the Koran for these corrupt
oppressors who fight against God and his prophet: killing, crucifixion
or chopping of the limbs."<br />
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<img alt="Image result for abu al-hasan al-ash'ari" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR2rdvzO0p5MJsV8eI54AFDVM842ULEk8J4g4bhQlj9jN1sAA3u" data-sz="f" name="mlo19GhcNKXyVM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR2rdvzO0p5MJsV8eI54AFDVM842ULEk8J4g4bhQlj9jN1sAA3u" style="height: 183px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -6px; width: 244px;" /> <br />
<i> Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari in Islamic script.</i><br />
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If moderate Islam has lost Al-Azhar, one wonders if it has lost Al Ashari Islam as well. By 1300, The next great authority on Sunni Islam was already where the Al Azhar University has ended up today.<b> </b><br />
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<br />
<b>Ibn Tayamiyya</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Unlike Ashari and even Hanbal, Ibn Tayamiyya (1263-1328) seems to have been unambiguously <i>Takfiri, </i>and probably would have accepted the description. His modern apologists explain his exhortations to violence by the age in which he lived. As Hanbal had seen the dawn of Abassid Caliphate, Tayamiyya saw its demise. In the mid13th century the Caliphate was overrun by the Mongols of Jinghiz Khan who captured and sacked Baghdad in 1258 ending Abbasid rule.<br />
<br />
<img alt="Image result for Ibn Taymiyyah" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="O6PjkkUWOT-lGM:" 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" style="height: 169px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 138px;" /> <br />
<br />
<i>Ibn Tayamiyya</i><br />
<br />
The Mongols converted to Islam but went on killing Muslims. At the same time they retained their own Mongol <i>Yasa</i> law code- instead of <i>Sharia</i>. For Sunni Islam the experience was traumatic and called for another revolution after the Abbasid one, at least a doctrinal revolution. Tayamiyya created precedent not only by declaring <i>Takfir </i>and <i>Jihad </i>against the falsely Islamic Mongols, but with his highly influential <i>Mardin Fatwa </i>reversed their conversion rendering them apostate, <i>Takfiri,</i> along with any Muslim who failed to observe <i>Sharia </i>or fouled the practice of Islam with alien customs. Muslims took heed and fought the Mongols, enshrining Tamiyya's use of <i>Takfir</i> (excommunication) as a political weapon to enforce <i>Sharia. </i>He also forbade the use of idols, shrines and images and ensured continued Hanbali reference to the law of the Quran. Taymiyya's theology gave Islam absolute political authority. With the <i>Mardin Fatwa</i>, crucially, he gave Muslims permission to declare <i>Takfir</i> and Jihad against other Muslims and within Muslum countries.<br />
<br />
Ahmad Ibn Tayamiyya is a chief if not the dominant source of Islamic jurisprudence for all Sunni <i>jhadi </i>radicals down to Osama Bin Laden and ISIS. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Taymiyya also endorsed Salafism, effectively making it official. Thanks to
him Salafism remains a form of Sunni Islam broadly practiced throughout
the Middle East with peaceful as well as jihadist and <i>Takfiri</i> interpretations.</span> The crux of the matter is that Tayamiyya has been given respectability by many peaceful Muslims who follow his ordinary teachings on Sharia. According to Shukur Khilkhal, "The truth of the matter is that these (Tayamiyya's) doctrines are taught regularly in
schools and universities in many Arab countries. It is worth mentioning
that Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,
the current leader of IS (ISIS)— who proclaimed himself a caliph of Muslims
in Mosul — studied these doctrines in the Faculty of Islamic Sciences in
Baghdad." <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><img alt="Image result for Ibn Taymiyyah" class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQDVpQIatdf42z6je9p2Kev8GdGFnoAGNYkObIrb1SSpXpdMT7lTw" data-sz="f" name="447UCdp-rBVA7M:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQDVpQIatdf42z6je9p2Kev8GdGFnoAGNYkObIrb1SSpXpdMT7lTw" style="height: 160px; margin-left: -6px; margin-right: -6px; margin-top: 0px; width: 226px;" /><br />
<i>The Mongol siege of Baghdad</i><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> In </span>an article named, 'The Scholars of Isis,' The website 'Islamic Philosophy' notes, "The average Sunni layperson will now have no problem saying how
wonderful “Sheikh Al Islam” Ibn Taymiah is, yet are they aware of their
statements? (Quoting Tayamiyyah on a fatwa) <i>“They are more evil than most of the people of desires, and they are more deserving of being killed than the Khawaarij.” (</i>That is, even worse than Karijites).<i> </i>The piece goes on to refer to the use by ISIS of a line from Tayamiyyah during their video of the burning alive of a Jordanian fighter pilot : <i>“So if horror of commonly desecrating the body is a
call for them [the infidels] to believe [in Islam], or to stop their
aggression, it is from here that we carry out the punishment and the
allowance for legal Jihad”</i><br />
<br />
<br />
But there are also matters of interpretation. Taymiyya wrote the <i>Mardin Fatwa </i>in
response to Muslims suffering under Mongol rule in his home town of
Mardin (on the modern day border between Syria and Turkey). Recently, Islamic Scholars became concerned about the widespread use of the <i>Mardin Fatwa</i> by Jihadis against other Muslims and held discussions at the eponymous Mardin Conference in 2010. That was before the rise of ISIS.<i> </i>The scholars concluded that the calligraphy of the <i>Fatwa</i> had been deliberately falsified to declare <i>Tafir</i> and war on other Muslims when in fact it had merely stated that in conquered territories like Mardin the rights of Muslims and non Muslims should be respected alike. The conference doesn't seem to have ended the controversy and you can guess where ISIS stands on the issue. <br />
<br />
Still, Taymiyya's injunctions to kill are undeniable. He's probably the scholar most often cited by ISIS and is quoted liberally in recordings of ISIS sermons. Middle East Eye journalist Mohamed Ghilan writes that Tamiyya is "a source of
many legal rulings that form the basis of ISIS behaviour today." While holding the West and the corrupt, secular tyrannies it has supported responsible for much of the mess, Ghilan emphasizes that "w<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hat ISIS militants choose to turn a
blind eye to is that Ibn Taymiyyah was a refugee during the Mongol invasions,
and his rulings permitting torture and mutilation of the dead were reactionary
rulings that have to do more with what he witnessed the Mongols do to Muslims
at the time. In fact, his legal justifications for issuing such rulings
explicitly stated this very reason." Nevertheless, the rulings were never reversed, at least not effectively. And Taymiyya's influence last endured down to the present day in Salafism and its offshoot, the more modern Sunni reform movement, Wahabbism. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span><br />
<b>Wahhabism</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b> Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) led a campaign out of the Najd in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, to purify Islam of what it deemed to be pagan accretions of alien custom and in particular, cults, saints, idols and images. The movement grew out of <i>Salafism</i> progressing by continual warfare throughout the peninsula until it became the religion of the <i>Saudis</i> and with them, the state religion of Saudi Arabia. <i>Wahhabism</i> is considered to be a strict form of <i>Salafism. </i><br />
<br />
<br />
<img class="irc_mi" src="http://looklex.com/e.o/slides/najd02.jpg" height="393" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="653" /><br />
<br />
<i>The Najd in the central Arabian peninsula, the place of origin of Wahhabism. </i><br />
<br />
<i> </i>ISIS, of course, feeds off <i>Wahhabism</i> as it does on so much else in Islam. According to Mintpress,"Much of IS’s (ISIS's) educational “curriculum” finds its roots in Saudi
textbooks, especially at the middle school and high school levels.
Arabic, literature, history, civic education, cultural values, and norms
of behaviour—whether in a home or societal setting—are all taught
according to a particular interpretation of Sunni Islam. The Wahhabi-Salafi-Hanbali interpretation also permeates religion or
theology classes, especially those that focus on elements of Sharia,
fiqh (jurisprudence), or the Hadith. The biological and physical
sciences are taught from a pre-ordained creationist perspective, which
rejects modernity in favour of traditionalism."<br />
<br />
But once again, ISIS is seen as a libel on an older faith and an embarrassment. Graeme Wood quotes Bernard Haykel: " 'The
Wahhabis were not wanton in their violence.' They were surrounded by
Muslims, and they conquered lands that were already Islamic; this stayed
their hand. '<span class="smallcaps">ISIS</span>, by contrast, is
really reliving the early period.' Early Muslims were surrounded by
non-Muslims, and the Islamic State, because of its <i>takfiri</i> tendencies, considers itself to be in the same situation." ISIS has exploited <i>Wahabbi</i> ideas in order to destroy treasures of ancient history like those in Mosul, Iraq and in Palmyra, Syria. The blog landdestroyer.com reports that "Islam forbids idolatry and in the mind set of
Wahhabi extremism this translates to ‘all statues are forbidden’. This
is how ISIS justifies the destruction of ancient statues, in spite of
the fact no one worshiped those statues. The destruction of ancient
tombs can also be explained by Wahhabi doctrine which is hostile to
burial sites for fear they may become a site for veneration or worship." <br />
<br />
Al Qaeda, interestingly, seems to have left many if not most ancient sites unmolested but in ISIS we have the unimaginable: institutionalized barbarism and the erasure of history propped up by scripture, commentary and traditions purloined from scholarly traditions, traditions revered by many peaceful Muslims. ISIS is stealing scripture from the faithful just as it is stealing the early days of the Caliphate from Islam. <br />
<br />
In yet another misfortune ISIS has blackmailed many Muslims into silence about its religious credentials, Muslims who are intimidated by the so-called Caliphate's claims to Hanbal, the <i>Salaf, </i>Taymiyya, Wahhab and so on with the result that they're afraid to speak out for appearing <i>Takfiri </i>or apostate.<i> </i><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
For westerners, there's so much to admire in the history
and culture of Islam and sometimes a reborn Caliphate combining the best
of Islam doesn't seem such a bad idea. Nothing
could defile such an image better than ISIS. I don't look at atrocity
pictures, but I've seen some by accident and the so-called Islamic
Caliphate does not evoke the colours of Islamic art or any garden of paradise, much less the imageless grandeur of Mohammed or Allah- but rather the pink and black of burned flesh.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>The Beginning and the End.</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Everything with ISIS seems to begin and end with earliest Islam, their genuinely <i>Karijite</i> attitudes and conduct, their abuse of <i>Takfir, </i>their
reenactment of the end days leading up to an eighth century Muslim
apocalypse. But also their adherence to the bloodiest edicts of a Muslim
scholar who, together with his fellow Muslims, was traumatized by one
of the worst scourges in human history, the Mongol Invasions. Is it any
surprise that ISIS has come to resemble the Mongols who
themselves had the effect of brutalizing aspects of Islamic teaching
which ISIS has in turn chosen to exploit? Is it any surprise that like the Mongols who took what they wanted of Islam, like the Nazis who collected bits of ideology from everywhere, ISIS has preyed on Islam, taking whatever suits it?</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> These are the reflections of a baffled westerner. The judgements aren't mine but the judgements of Muslims. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Of this fraudulent caliphate,al Qaeda scholar Abu Mohammed Maqdisi has himself asked: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"Is
this caliphate going to be a safe haven for all the vulnerable
people and a shelter for every Muslim? Or will this name become a
hanging sword over Muslims who disagree with them? Will this lead to the
abolishment of all Islamic emirates that came before their declared
state, and will it invalidate all the other groups that are engaging
in jihad for the sake of God in all fields before them?" </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> And we should also ask, is ISIS capable of destroying everything for everyone in its domain, indeed in the whole Middle East? Not to mention much of our collective past.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><img alt="Image result for temple of bel syria" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="vlEkUanlLqYcQM:" 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vFlUYpI1eC/hs+ELxL2ccp0wGODiQADAH6rxbsMRTUUsyMmWGqNt2HNNllm+IVIqPGsOPqtPR271lce0uqPNvedrPMrFqWydzUi3nAP+Y7T2c35/NXtq1BfKB4zp4WUw0bwOd/RevdHXX7soFYmYRhKj9SKYE6SQfk2PRMqLyTEAjmHAwfh18QCk9J5YQSHN5SCJCb4StVddjDl5ktaSOkkIkwbFra5Eh1KoBe+XMPBzZ15Ivh2FLS5znyHXA0y77lV4guyjPSIkwHjKS0nQyDrqg+K1w5jQJs6DINiBpcXUlOeSal7Ec4Z4uPuB8cNR1S0cjBt3jzQbaRyuzAWiI66nVQxdUsYXNjUa+Sm0uc2+v7HqhqTcm37hwgopJEGvyczJAECfsJlg6oGs+F0KaYbF9RP0+iKwDxNtUCVgmyfGagfRgEi4MXGYCQQJ1IskrsEWZe02D/SQSNLGLAp7xUj2Y3gn0SwSWNLveIExYaI3K2gMVciKwIa29u5X4YXQzcO4HOIt6n/SMw5JcJAnoo1fmGFcXqubRBbY5vQFC4WgKlSials4fN9myRfa8+SO4tTPsT/bf6fVKKtEg5cpvoIMkcxzUkZZXe1yNq632JVGgOIGknylaLg407lmqYWl4JtziyKi/MT+RVV9DQXxMflVPhKymHZLgmGK4094cwtYAbWn9UJQEETa6nxdaNWaceRBhqUqcWpGn4ezsBZTEj8x3xH1WsoVmU2jO4N71lMQZeYgySfMmE+IknRgrjUE1UmzT8Mb+WsnQnN42+/Na7hI7CylE3Hehr8Kn3Co8SfYbcab+RT7/oVV+HW9rz9Ffxk//Hp/F9Cqvw57/n6J7+fD/H8DW8qXc0OVYqn/ABfErdALDub+b/kVb2g9I/vsVsEvUS/7x+M+pQ1Edp3c4eqv/wC6fiPqq2D8wjq76rKbNEEaQPBeE5oy3lSLhEwSI0AXtCqCMwBG9xBQw3jvcDYmj2jmkG06HYLkVjGS49zfQLlNoDY2mHFx3pBx3CinVhv8wzX2kn9E7wDXZmy0xrMtI06GUm/EDx7d28ZR8gpJRTo/NyNNqr2F2WNvGFKiS0ggwRvK4GdlzhzEDvVTUn0LcZXL3CSTbWBM3nTXRDsqxum+HrhrAHB4ZAyltr855anxTDA4+nJDGOBPvE5Tm+IkX9UVk9412twowWIe5zQSSJk+G0nvV3FiSG2gSY+Sc4ylTiWNIdmBJEGSbGdmnT5pNxWqRln+76BK1tBXuK8TSzMA1k/Uq+rThzxaASB4AqdK5adgRv1VsZy4j+o+OqVhZgbGvawNLiB2Rfnc/wCkZgXRaQFDimE7TGuDXDIDpbUqGGwwJAcQBpP6kpcxcg7i0uY0OOa5Bi1oFrnqlOLqtYWAg9twa2Of6JlieFElhpPaWtzAk2vtYC5ubk+SVVRmNw0lruzbSLWv0Ke3uJMKa38t3xN/9l5h3Q4KQefZHc5m6f5KOHBkH77kI6GmPePYPnl9FPDtnG0ByoH/AN1XjKrfYvmQQNDrfoisGAcWw8qH1erFF/Wu33Iavpff7Geqe+74nepWi4ILhZrL+Y4jMQSYvaJJmNim+Fxb2guY27WnXQ6bb2+ijptKd/kOorwsMOL8IpCnUeGkOAJBk2POJhZrD0JI7RPfotVi6rjRrtcWOytHabpfVpHMEFZug8Ai4U2KyuScVYhw+ZRakxtV4TUqtZlc05ZHaJGsHYHkEie0tdBgwY8R1Wt4fjwHMp5S7N/MIhpgm/SG7Ssvif4jgdnu9UFWMVCMlv5h05SzNPcOWe0GGeWSX9iMg7QvfqbJDROhha38PuBY6No9CsvQOiVVfRBipv6pIYccqfk0hEAlx8rAfM+S8/DbfzBfc+iK46Yw9P4z6FLMBUIa8tMODSQfhE/T5p27VIvoMlem11NnlWHcPzJ2zH1W4w5Ja0nUtBMWEkbdFisQ2KpA0zn1VvGu8YsrYRWckV1bVD8R9VW1n5x+Jyur/wAU/EpZfzv8ys0vC2m2FF87c1c7uVNQoVvHZZXEmdbD0C5V5y68/NcpLjGsZIDbkzpDTJsT4aTtos1iKvaJuZce/wCZWtwtRlHM8guGVxiJuRNhMAcuUrJNZafVFKVlZgpXdyIqA/eiszhR/wCPe0ffRTD4OXnF4t4qKTjyDSZKmCcwA28h9D80wwtCo2zBB1zafM3i6FGIcXCSJaIJ389/3TOniaRbl7QOlt+7blsEkx2mEOquAu4GbQHTOjoOxA+qH4nw1uIEZjTImMo+xOiIbRBpl+RwDYkky43gQP8AIHvurcNXDf4lMuAuYGaBpsLm3PmjjvAe4GwP4bqUn5vaYdzBNs7iR/4GVVR4YRUdFRrwe1laDIB6kXElPMPjqThlBcXXky1hidSRy6qvFVWsaHkPhpPIGXH+oAH5qWWpGhHx9/5gsbU2jlu5VYfDiA7O1t9O1Mi+wXnGqjX1ZaS7siZte9rkzaBKjhmgCXXH9ANz43hV29SZLQc1q7AWkl0Fu4Oo/pja8pO3hTC8jPWJIBJDQInU36mdEywuAllqjm3JMiTeLGCBbuvKOvTAzBlUAQTlh0G29nDQKWO4CW8Q4zDeyGQ3khwdfQSI5Te67CMvY5eoRXGqbm08waSwOGrGh3SXt131SijxIWljx5Hyugk9QorQ0b8NnblJnQ2EkwRrIMjp0Ktp08jswGZ2UtAAAJmdoFvPVdwN/t2FwmJIvOYHuE9OaOZgnHd8HWXmw6SzU99usKSMXvQDa3MwxJDiCNzfkZ0TPCNzNIi/O51+qEqgCq9pd/O6b/3ETom3BmBzsjJ0JF4iN7G/+lCt5I9xdpRxANiRbxvAO+o0SWiLhN+N0HMaZe0dkdkuuTvvJ1FpKT4d1xcI5t6JgxS1aHuEcBVpSQNdbfyv596QYlwNWpEXe4/Mp7iOHMfT9o8w0CDGus26nuSGlSF+QNpRTbypMaKV20GY7H1abGinUDQ8OBkS6w1adrFA0jcJ3QwDK8NLgHNEtBcRPPYjkkrHAGDqDH0Uc22kFG2o444JwtL4/o5LcBSEP+B9v8TcqziGBIYKpmZDXDTLMwIImYHzUMIG3Dj7wjWDO14MeRRyleSYKVlY2WE/hsP9jfQLEVauZ7nCwLifMymA/D4Ny4kOm2ctju7MHcXsl/sWteWjRriNZ+YF+9TV62dJEdKmo3OqHtn4l64xWPxqFZs1HAXM7T0VbqX5jgYF7g/Wf0VW5NYFxFyfJDNoNa2GiBdFkQo0KTX1Gtub3HzTX5BfJEGLLlLE2e4EXBIPhZeo8oNzY4vDup0KjyW/w3CJ/qEaGOfyWUoHRPuJV2mk8uec2WwDgAbxpvbuWQbTkctY6eSad2PHQaHwVrH9Ak9OnlHvPJ5yb/NF4LBVKjoaX33NmjvcbBMqY+ZBTNXd/wCiLw1QNvlm+trDorav4Zc1oiqwu/qD5B6Rl+aHpfhys6S6o1o55gbc7Xj9Usr5DZlzG+Gre1Psw8tkEXbIE76jRP8ACU20wKbaofEzcE3MkxsLhZV3DGYQtfXqlzBMi95EAAiTumnCuKUXZhhcPWeSBoTlsN3P7IR020xppNDquGwbgdkybTEXPNDUaVXKAK+ZsWmnMi0XLr2hLan4grt/+jWIH9zTHlI+a8b+IqhMuwtWm2JOaedr5Y+asSWl2Qr2Qk4rTdWxLgXjsEjMeyJtmsJ3TXBcLY0y4+0PX3fAc0DgzSYZcKhMyTnEzMzGX1TulxfDxcOH+DPSCqzaZNZl2GwdOZpjKQILYcN5PZm46+S84jg6jmhrSLkTJ2meXQbqNLiVJpdFSq8OMxlb2YEWtZCYjH13n8itSaIktqtyOaNPelwd8iji42AaYs49TcC1jssnta8rDu1XuBwFAx7Rz5/sDQPMmfkrcNwR2ZzqtSmXOMnLVawyb70yfktHRZUosn2lQtEEhpa4gbxLBKHoEe4IUw0NoMcxgmSRqeYcZk9T9F7i8YKNMue8WBguIGYgSBYbxsp1qbHM9o2q+8GS6Zki2lpgCfkkbuG06xzGtXLQfdIDgCJmCXt57D1Uim0gHFNivgeBdU7QDj1AMA9TB81of+mh7SGsbSc6DnHvEjXskiN9F1Hh1Ie7VDSNA6kOetnyRrvul/4qr02+zu0zLbNIuMp6oNyuHvKuOfhyo7KW5qjhbVjQAdy5zxfXmg6GGNHsuZRncvqTPk+PJDU6ozQIPMC556arW8MwlNzA8sGZwjM4XgEgWdpum9bF6Bc/HU20nOqCmQ2CGUnZiSbTGY8/VKuDcOdUhxaCCdHFxmd8oHitWcNToNc9rRma10GIc7cguAkiwsl44zStNATA/pB8JbcIraWYN76oJxWDNGi72dNznR2QGlkzq47mNb8ko4LgckZjDjza0/N9QR5JxSxjXt7NMAjQki3L+W14VdenWqtE5qbxuCHeBi5HcRqk02PewHxrhdSuWezdnayc4LqYg7QwPiYkfVH4LhHsmgAGTEug5v8AxkeEoGpg6ob23B0A2l0xcWbElW1OMO0gsjmLAcxz2SsLfuLcW8U+y2HvmWh5Dcp0mQSdPRKuC4RrGmpWIL7l0sc6NydL85AKAxdGe2KmeCC6xBk7xMkSAr6NWoHS4GdpLddpB7zfW6bMKyCa2LotrPf2ydCQ3syBGoImYG6hVx9Ok4VXtgVB2XDUcs0ydAL6KQwM5stSA6HmmALEjSZiJ+90PxbhNAtaC6q3tCS4tdaCIAb2eR12TWbFdCDiFVtR7sgbk0A7t9E2/DOCpsaXOAvbmGjxvJ6Kzhv4QaQ72ld4uQ3JluOckHyRlSkKBy031nBtjlcATEaty9rvCLUW8uxHFHNdDKTXttDuyJBAO7VyGq4Ck85nPxMnX3R/6rk2Z+w/0hv4mxoZhnhopsc7K0ANDDDjfToD5rEUnGdP3Q9Wi57i8vNQmTPvHzWk4XwKmGh1eqROzMoAPIvJPp4qSWVgq6KuHYdxcHQBykTJGsC4kdU8bWeWkB4A3JAsOgAgrx1Gg0NApktkXLpnb3gd+SaYbEYUGA0juMjlz+5UNgwDCYEt/h1DH8wjU9HA6K//AIb83ZqAjdhEEdWTv1lMcVhaD2y2C/YTBP7qijiWtADqOs8zpr4/NNYVzzhlGkxwaS8vdrmEmB1GgH0TPEOptAhpP+TjHgDYddF1HHta0OY0QddnDrfX/SGbiaeIIcz+X3tpJ2nSRGyOD5AyXMqbQoyGhsZyf5nEE63JN9ETicF7RhbMA2JGvz7uSi/At5OEkzBAvz013Uzhmu1ETvJ9FJZgXRn6v4emQyuHQd2g+eV3cg6vBntNqlIwJ1IgbyIMbfNaSpwwTIMTqdz5Dpuq6nCGugmCB9zp9ygyfAWdiPBcCfWjJUYTuGyempjcJnh/wY5wIrOBuCMjnMiJsSLnXolvF8P7B4FPM0ZMxIMbu9I+aGp8drgSHu7s1hzEoLqL3BpNreaSl+DaTY7APfUcfU3RtHgQaIDAOgcY8iVm2cexAAzOdEAk3FpInqLiT5o3CcWxNQDKSYsbbwY3jkiU17AuPyNG8PZSIAY1knQNy+UCF5X4XTLsxpjMdSJE2i47kPgMY57nB7gSIBGpnu2iCPFMA8Ry6aI1ZoBqzKW0GtEAAdP9b2XtOg0aANHS3zHqp5xbTv18uXcpugCdvP7KewxT7EdT/kTPgTrZe+wBifG6jVcwiDMciPsq0127ck4jz2caBB4l1QG1MOE6zB8oRIxQizSeXXuUXYhu8Dvt9LpCIiqdIcPTuUQ8g2bUMx1jqBNtFU/FtmAec2OnRRfjNLjrYg+aa4rF1TEQbtdHchq2MpmM1PNPNoNvFe08c208iLD9vuVL/k7Ex9fn+iQiqi2kDIpta692NANtLxqoVMLRce1SBO3ZBMc7CyMNSItPO1tN+ik1x5CNtf0+SdCAMHRozNNlxab2npsequrFubKWi41IERymPkiXUweXnsdVWW/vbXonSGBX4QfyuLfvSEtHBiKrqoqmTtFhHLyT0wT4R0VTvBJxTHuyhjHAXl3W11ynmHNclYY+fUMQC8vFNrTJIDQOz0E7I2hWD4DnENE25T9Fy5VZLUtJ8hlQxDWU8vacD7wPumNDz2UXY8AQxoZyLdfnN+q8XKCVRhKKKKGLyHMXPcepEE9zQE5fxenMEEkhpvpI0ne33uuXIoSY8khTW45Upkhr3wbjqDp4rYfhuq91FpqANqEuOoJc0EjMSBAvIjouXKekrakMnfQZVHgA/oP0XlyOye8n9ly5WGRFT2PBFxE3O+mkR9VKq4gEnS/gNtly5MMZ/i34fqVXZ24hzScohwzty3mGyCLwQAdyldfgWMaSW+ydHunOWk/45TB8Vy5C4Rb1CztERwvGEQ9jS2xtUF4tuNl3/AxebLRysYYkl+hEagCTBnzXq5D4cReJId8LwdWixzXZXEmc8Ra3WSndJhjRvgPvkuXI4pDNnNpAXAaNzE377a2XjSOseEHw1XLkQxGpgJINgDrMnxA0ChisKWiM4Av/AFSd9v1XLk1h0U0cK+Oy+BHePmu/4MzmPP5b2PRcuT2Vxj1vD2jWXDvItysdLqP/AE1kyAfE8+v+1y5KyFdkhhWtNgAfuVVj6lOk3O9sgb8pXLkhi+RaJ6L15A6LlycR5MnTbmq3v81y5IRQTrPf9eahmGoXLkhHkrly5IR//9k=" style="height: 183px; margin-left: -18px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 275px;" /> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>Temple of Bel, Palmyra, Syria: before and after </i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>destruction byISIS</i> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><br />
<img alt="Image result for temple of bel syria before and after ISIS" class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="UB6v8yA5m3xFqM:" 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<br />
<i>thanks to BBC Timelines and: </i><br />
<i>http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/timeline-al-qaeda-linked-terrorists-move-closer-establishing-islamic </i><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23283079 </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Wikipedia, </span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf">http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.understandingwar.org/">http://www.understandingwar.org/</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/04/al-qaeda-jabhat-al-nusra-merge.html</span></div>
<br />
<i> http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/10895006/Timeline-How-al-Qaeda-regained-its-hold-in-Iraq.html </i><br />
<i> -http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/05/02/f-al-qaeda-timeline.html</i><br />
<i><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">- Infoplease.com</a> <a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu</a> </i><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">EXTENDED TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF AL QAEDA AND ISI OR 'ISLAMIC STATE' from 780 BC-2014 AD</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Hanbali Reform Movement of early Arabia.</span><br />
<br />
780-855-
Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, sounder of the Hanbali code of Sharia law. He holds
that a decision in Sharia must be referred directly to the Quran and the
sunna- not to the legal framework that had grown up around them. In
other words, he held that the law itself had already been written in the
words of the Quran.<br />
<br />
-in subsequent centuries, the Hanbali Code loses strength everywhere except at Najd in central Arabia.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>1042-1147-North Africa and Spain</b></span><br />
<br />
Almoravids impose Islamic rule over an area comprising modern Morocco, Mauretainia, northern Mali, western Algeria and Spain.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Ibn Taimiya Revives the Hanbali Code in the Middle Ages.</span><br />
<br />
1300-
(crica) in a revival, Ahmad Ibn Taimiya upholds the Hanbali Code as a
means of reform and of condemning the cults of tombs and saints, and
urging the continual interpretation (itijihad) of law in light of the
Quran. He sees the Shia, with all their excess ritual, as the enemy
within. He upheld the Sunni Caliphs over the Shia Imams because be
believed that seizing and weilding secular power was all that mattered
in a leader- and the Caliphs had done that most effecrively.<br />
<br />
1328- death of Ibn Taimiya.<br />
<br />
1250-1517- The Mameluke Caliphs of Cairo adopt the Hanbali Code.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Wahhabi Movement of the 18th Century. </span><br />
<br />
1703- Abdul al-Wahhab is born at Najd, a main centre of Hanbali Islam in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula.<br />
<br />
1725
(circa) -Al-Wahhab (1703-1787) founds Muwahidun (unitarian) movement-
an attempt to purify Islam of medieval superstition, to stop the
translation of Sharia into jurisprudence and to get rid of the cult of
saints. The Muwahidun follow the Hanbali school as taught by Tarq al Din
ibn Taimiya (qv). Wahhab's oponnents call his followers 'Wahhabis', the
name that stuck.<br />
<br />
-Wahhab makes attendance at public prayer obligatory, forbids the building of minarets,<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Ibn Saud, Wahhabism and the Origins of the House of Saud</span><br />
<br />
-having failed to spread his movement, Al Wahhab allies himself with a tribal chieftain, Mohammed Ib Saud.<br />
<br />
1726-65- Mohammed Ibn Saud, ruler of the Diraiya Emirate embraces Wahhabism, has his subjects convert on pain of death.<br />
<br />
1745- Muhammad Ibn Saud becomes ruler of Najd, the central plateau and oasis region of Arania, founds the House of Saud.<br />
<br />
-in
alliance with followers of Saud, Wahabbis mount a campaign against
idolatry, corruption and adultery. On the authority of the Hadith, they
ban dancing, music and poetry, silk, gold, ornaments and jewelery.<br />
<br />
1766-1803- Mohammed's son, Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, continues to uphold Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
1773- Abdul Aziz ibn Saud takes Riyadh.<br />
<br />
1802- in a campaign against the Shia, the Wahhabis attack the Shia holy city of Karbala.<br />
<br />
1810- the Whhabi Ibn Sauds ruule most of Arabia.<br />
<br />
1803-1814 Saud Ibn Abdul Aziz of the House of Saud tries to spread Wahhabism to the frontiers of Syria and Iraq.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Ottoman Sultan sends the Egyptian Pasha to Crush Wahhabism.</span><br />
<br />
-the Ottoman Sultan is outrages by what he sees as descecration of the holy pplaces of Arabi by the Sauds and their Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
1814-18- Sent by hte sultan, Muhammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, crushes the Wahhabist movement and executes Abdullah Ibn Saud.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Salafism</span><br />
<br />
1838-97- Jamal al-din Afghani. Helps develop Salafism- an Islamic ideology based on the example of the <span style="font-style: italic;">salaf- </span>the
ancestors of early Islam. He promotes the Pan-Islam movement in an
attempt to revive a mythical 'pure' Islam free of ethnic and political
rivalries.<br />
<br />
1849-1905- Muhammad Abdu- a follower of Afghani (b. 1838) emphasized the influence of the Salaf on Sharia law.<br />
<br />
1865-1935-
Muhammad Rashid Rida, follower of Abdu (b. 1849) researched what
Mohammed and 'the pious ancestors' had done and taught so that it could
be applied to contemporary conditions. He preferred the Salaf to the
four Sunni legal schools.<br />
<br />
<b>19th century in Mali-</b><br />
-French colonial advance provokes the
Fula and <i>Toucouleur</i> (Tukolor ) jihads which spread across region. Various theocratic states formed.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Fall and Revival of Wahhabism</span><br />
<br />
1881- House of Saud expelled from the Riyadh region. But it revivies under Abdul Rahman Ibn Al Saud and spreads Wahhabism<br />
<br />
1891- Abdul Rahman Ibn Al Saud of the House of Saud is overthrown at Diraiya by the House Of Rashid which has Ottoman backing.<br />
<br />
-the
Deobandi and Ahl-i-Hadith movements rise in northern India- in an
attempt to rally and purify Islam against British and western colonial
forces. Both are opposed to the Shia.<br />
<br />
<b>1894- </b><b>Mali-</b> Tuareg rebels declare a jihad against the French following their occupation of the city of Tombouctou in January<br />
<br />
1902 -Abdul Aziz
ibn Abdul Rahman al Saud re-conquers the Najd from the Ottomans,
reviviing Wahhabism militarily and politically through the Ikhwan
Wahhabist movement. Wahabbis mount new attacks on hypocrites, laxity,
non-blievers. The criteria for belief is strict adherecne to the Sharia.<br />
<br />
1905-6- Abdul Aziz Ibn Abdul Rahman takes east central Arabia.<br />
<br />
1913-
Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, commander of the Whhabist Ikhwan army invades the
Shia region of Al-Hasa and attempts to impose Wahhabism.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Mohammed Qutb</span><br />
<br />
1906-66- Sayyid Mohammed Qutb. Muslim ideologue. Born in Asyut, Egypt. Trained as a teacher in Cairo.<br />
<br />
1920s- Salafis teach that since Mohammed was chosen by the community, leadership of Islam cannot be hereditary.<br />
<br />
1925-
Ibn Saud's Ikhwan Wahhabists destroy the Jannat al Baghi cemetery in
Medina, a Shia holy place where the daughter of the Prophet and the 3nd,
4th, 5th and 6th Shia imams are buried.<br />
<br />
1926- The Ikhwan resorts to the systematic killing of Shia.<br />
<br />
1927-
May 20- British lay down treaty of Jeddah giving the Hijaz and Jajd to
Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud. The Ikhwan, sends a Wahhabi recolt against Ibn Saud
for using telephone,s radios, cars etc.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Muslim Brotherhood and the Saudi Domestication of Wahhabism.</span><br />
<br />
1928- Muslim Brotherhood founded by Hassan al Banna in Egypt for moral and social reform.<br />
<br />
1930s-
House of Saud becomes rich on oil wealth, moderates its belief in
Wahhabism; the pogroms against the Shia are stopped; instead the Shia
suffer discrimination and marginalization.<br />
<br />
1932- the vast desert region whose heart is the Najd bcomes the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
-in Mecca, the Supreme Religious Council continues to be the official head of Wahabbism.<br />
<br />
1939-
Muslim brother hood becomes a political movement in response to the
Arab uprising against the British in Palestine (1936) and Egyptian
protest against the the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty (1936). The brotherhood
declares that the Quran and the Hadith are sufficient as a social
political code for any time and place.<br />
<br />
1940- the Muslim brotherhood has 500 branches each with a mosque and social services.<br />
<br />
1948-
Qutb is sent to university in Colorado, USA by his ministry. He is
appalled at what he sees as America's decadence and depravity.<br />
<br />
1948-49-
members of the Muslim Brotherhood fight in the Palestine War,
recruiting Egyptian officers and gaining military experience. The
Brotherhood turns against Egypt which is blames for the 1948-49 war.<br />
<br />
1948- Egypt declares martial law and bans the Brotherhood.<br />
<br />
-Egyptian premier, Fahmi Nokrashi Pasha, is assassinated by the Brotherhood.<br />
<br />
1949- Hassan a Banna, leader of the Egyptian Brotherhood is assassinated.<br />
<br />
1950- with the lifting of martial law, the Brotherhood enters mainstream Egyptian politics.<br />
<br />
1951-
Qutb returns to Egypt but his anti-American views get him expelled from
the education ministry. He joins the Muslim Brootherhood. In his
writings he says that America should be placed under a sentence of
death.<br />
<br />
1952- the Brotherhood supports Egypt in rejecting the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and participates in the Cairo riots.<br />
<br />
1952- the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) overthrows the regime in Egypt.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Egypt bans the Muslim Brotherhood.</span><br />
<br />
1954-
Egypt's RCC bans the Muslim Brotherhood. Qutb and other members are
held in a concentration camp. He writes his defining work, Maalim Fi Al
Tariq- "Signposts on the Road"- which divides all social systems into
"The Order of Islam" and "The Order of Ignorance." The book remains a
text book for radical Islam.<br />
<br />
23rd Oct.- after
Brotherhood members attempt to assassinate President Nasser, the
plotters are hanged, many are imprisoned or driven into exile in Syria,
Lebanon, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
1957- birth of Osama
Bin laden, son of a bricklayer from South Yemen. Bin Laden's father
settles in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and becomes a wealthy construction
magnate.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Qutb Becomes Leader of the Muslim Brotherhood.</span><br />
<br />
1964-
Qutb and cohorts are released from detainment in Egypt. "Signposts on
the Road" is smuggled out of Egypt. Though he is non-violent, the Muslim
Brotherhood promotes him into the leadership to avenge their
persecution in Egypt.<br />
<br />
-Nasser tries to include the Muslim Brotherhood in the Arab Socialist Union to combat Communism.<br />
<br />
-repeated attempts by the Brotherhood to assassinate Nasser.<br />
<br />
1966-Sayyid
Muhammed Qutb is put on trial in Egypt. He states that the nations of
the Middle East are a western fabrication and that actually Islam has no
nations, only a Community of Believers.<br />
<br />
-Sayyid Muhammed Qutb and other Brotherhood leaders are executed.<br />
<br />
<b>Muslim Brotherhood gains from 1967 War with Israel.</b><br />
<br />
1967- Egypt decisively defeated in war with Israel.<br />
<br />
1968-
popular feeling that Egypt had received divine retribution for Arab
Socialism causes Nasser to grant a general amnesty to the Muslim
Brotherhood.<br />
<br />
-new Egyptian president, Anwar Sadat, attempts to integrate the Brotherhood into the mainstrem.<br />
<br />
1975 (circa) Saalafis active in Kuwait where they want a republican, democratic regime.<br />
<br />
<b>Egypt's Sadat Bans the Muslim Brotherhood causing it to Radicalize.</b><br />
<br />
1976-
fearing the expanding power of the Brotherhood, President Sadat bans it
from Egyptian elections. 15 Brotherhood members are elected as members
of other parties causing a radical wing to split off in protest.<br />
<br />
-the Muslim Brotherhood radicalizes and turns against Sadat's modernization and pro-Israel and pro-West policies.<br />
<br />
<b>Uprising against Saudis; beginning of Careers of Osama Bin Laden and Ayman Zawahiri. </b><br />
<br />
1978- Ayman Zawahiri graduates as as a surgeon from Cairo's University's medical school.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden graduates with a degree in civil engineering from King Abdul Aziz University in Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
1979-
armed uprising against rulers of Saudi Arabia at the Grand Mosque-
assisted by Salafis from Kuwait. The young engineering graduate, Bin
laden, regards them as true Muslims. Salafis have since become active in
Kuwait politics.<br />
<br />
1979- Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin sign the Egyptian-Istaeli peace Treaty<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>.</b> </span>But his new peace costs Egypt membership in the Arab League.<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
-due to the unpopularity of the treaty at home, Sadat becomes increasingly autocratic.<br />
<br />
<b>Roots of the Al Nusra Front.</b><br />
<br />
1980-<span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-size: small;"> Abu Musab al Sur (</span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">aka Mustafa Setmariam Nasar and the</span>
intellectual godfather of Al Nusra) joins the Combatant Vanguard
organization, a radical offshoot of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood which
is at the forefront in the Islamic uprising in Hama, Syria.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Abdullah Azzam's 'Bureau of Service' in Pakistan for Afghan Jihad- antecedent to Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
1980- Abdullah Azzam founds Maktab al Khidmat (Bureau of Service) in Peshawar, Pakistan.<br />
<br />
-Pakistani
ISI and American CIA camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border join in
training non-Afhgan Mujehadeen to fight the Soviets in Afghanistan. They
use US army training manuals translated into Urdu, Arabic and Persian,
stressing nationalism and Islam.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden visits Peshawar and lobbies family and friends to support the anti-Soviet jihad in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
-Osama
Bin Laden goes back to Saudi Arabia, raises large sums from family
connections and returns to Pakistan with members of the family business,
the Saudi Binlandin Group.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin laden leads non-Afghan Mujehadeen in Afghan war against the Soviets.</b><br />
<br />
-Bin laden becomes leader of the non-Afghan Mujehadeen, working alongside the CIA and the ISI.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>1980s- Somalia</b> fights Islamic fundamentalists in its north and the Patriotic Front in the south.<br />
<br />
<b>Zawahiri arrested in Assassination of Sadat.</b><br />
<br />
1981-
Oct 6- a radical wing of the Muslim Brotherhood assassinates President
Sadat. Ayman al Zawahiri is among those jailed in the plot.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Sur- the Grandfather of Al Nusra.</b><br />
<br />
1982- <span style="font-size: small;">Al Sur joins in the uprising of the Muslim
Brotherhood at Hama which is crushed by Syrian President Hafez al Assad,
killing tens of thousands. </span><br />
<br />
1984-
Egyptian President Mubarak maintains elections ban on Muslim
Brotherhood. Muslim Brotherhood members get elected as members of the
Neo-Wafd party.<br />
<br />
-the Muslim Brotherhood, uses highly educated members to dominate syndicates of lawyers, doctors, journalists and engineers.<br />
<br />
-Zawahiri is released from prison in Egypt.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Works for Pak-Afghan Bureau of Service.</b><br />
<br />
-in
Pakistan, Bin Laden comes under the influence of Abdulla Azzam, head of
the jihadi Bureau of Service. He vets non-Afghan volunteers, supervises
road construction and refurbishing caves for storage. He also engages
in guerilla sorties.<br />
<br />
1986- Bureau of Service sets up a branch in the US at the farooq Mosque in Brooklyn.<br />
<br />
-Bin
laden oversees construction of a sophsiticated tunnel complex for
storage, supplies and refuge at Khost on the Afghan-Pakistan border. The
complex is near Tora Bora.<br />
<br />
<b>Zawahiri joins the Anti-Soviet Afghan Struggle.</b><br />
<br />
-Zawahiri
travels to Pakistan to join the medical corps of the Mujehadeen
fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan. He is stationed in peshawar where
he sets up a branch of Islamic Jihad.<br />
<br />
1987- The Muslim
Brotherhood gains singificant power in the Egyptian parliament by
allying itself with socialist parties. Brotherhood deputies demand an
end to the Israeli-Egyptian treaty, to all ties with the United States
and the application of Sharia law.<br />
<br />
1988- Bin Laden and
Azzam make 'MAK' or The Service Bureau offical. Bin Laden wants to
advance non-military operations world-wide- while Azzam prefers a
military strategy.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda is new name for the Service Bureau upon murder of Azzam and victory in Afghanistan.</b><br />
<br />
1989- February- Bin Laden declares withdrawal of Soviets from Afghanistan a victory for the Jihad.<br />
<br />
November-
Azzam assassinated; Pakistan's ISI is a suspect. Bin Laden, assisted
by Muhammad Atef and Abu Ubaidah al Banshiri, takes over, renaming
Maktab al Khidmat 'Al Qaeda'- 'The Base', with a plan to expand the
Soviet Jihad into an international Jihad from headquarters in Peshawar.
The prime target is US interests world-wide with Al Qaeda launching its
own attacks or sponsoring similar outfits to attack Al Qaeda targets.<br />
<br />
Al Mohammed, trained as a US commando at Fort Bragg, leaves the US and joins Osama Bin Laden in Afghanistan and pakistan.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden abandons Afghan Civil war for Saudi Arabia.</b><br />
<br />
-Bin Laden resturns to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, discouraged by the inter-ethnic Afghan civil war.<br />
<br />
1990-
When Iraq invades Kuwait, Bin Laden offers to set up a citizen militia
to defend Saudi Arabia but the kingdom rejects his offer.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Repudiates US bases in Saudi Arabia for First Gulf War.</b><br />
<br />
1991
-the US responds to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait by setting up military
bases to protect Saudi Arabia's oil fields at Hama. Bin Laden swears to
avenge what he sees as US violation and occupation of Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
-Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood supports Saddam Hussein.<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Sets up Al Qaeda in Sudan; active also in Mogadishu and the Balkans.</b><br />
<br />
1991-1996-
Bin Laden, based in Sudan, sets up a series of corporate entities,
running Al Qaeda as if it were a corporation. It is ruled by a Shura or
Council of Twelve, with four executive committees: military (commanded
by Muhammed Atef) business, Islamic Studies , Media, and Public
Relations.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda begins launching international operations from Sudan.<br />
<br />
1992-93- Bin Laden intervenes in civil war in Somalia. His lieuenant, Atef, trains Somai tribes opposed to UN intervention.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda appears in Somalia in midst of clan war.</b><br />
<b> </b> <br />
1992-3-
as part of Osama Bin Laden’s Sudan-based al Qaeda support for Somali
Muslims, 9/11 terrorist Mohammed Atef trains Somali tribal guerillas
opposed to UN intervention<br />
<br />
<br />
-Ban Laden accused by US of complicity in American defeat in Mogadishu.<br />
<br />
-the
Deobandi movement, originally a Sunni anti-colonial force born in
British India, has spread from Bagladesh to Pakistan and southern
Afghanistan. Deobandi teaching leads to the formation if the Taliban.<br />
<br />
1993- Al Qaeda has about 1,000 members, mostly Afghan veteran Jihadis.<br />
It supports 5,000 Arab fighters defending Muslims in the Balkans during the Bosnian Civil War (1992-1995)<br />
<br />
<b>First World Trade Centre Attack Fails. Al Qaeda spreads globally.</b><br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda-linked bomb blast at World Trade Centre, New York.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda
has agents in Albania, Britain, Pakistan, Holland, Malasia, Lebanon,
Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and the United Arab Enirates.<br />
<br />
-Al
Qaeda forms loose associations with similar outfits in Ageria,
Chechnya, Egypt, Ethiopia, the Horn of Africa, Lebanon, Libya, the
Phulippines, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Yemen, Syria and Tunisia.<br />
<br />
1994- Al Zawahiri joins Bin Laden in Khartoum Sudan, becomes his mentor.<br />
<br />
-Saudi government revokes Bin Laden's citizenship and freezes his assets of $20-25 million<br />
<br />
-attempt
on Bin Laden's life. He founds the Committee for Advice and Reform. The
CAR is intended to promote preaceful reform in Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
1995- finally allowed to campaign openly in Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood runs 150 candidates, all of whom lose.<br />
<br />
-Islamabad- truck bombing kills 18- Egypt holds Zawahiri responsible.<br />
<br />
-CIA sets up a "Bin Laden station".<br />
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Expelled from Sudan.</b> <b>Zawahiri heads Egyptian wing of Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
-1996-
Sudan expels Bin Laden for his verbal attacks on the king of Saudi
Arabia and puts him under surveillance in order that Sudan be removed
from the U.S. list of terror states.<br />
<br />
-botched Egyptian
operations by the EIJ (Egyptian islamic Jihad, led by Ayman al
Zawahiri), the Egyptian wing of Al Qaeda, get the EIJ expelled from
Sudan.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Returns to Afghanistan.</b> <b>Victorious Taliban Gives protection to Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
1996-
Bin Laden moves Al Qaeda headquarters from Somalia to Jalalabad,
Afghanistan, though Jalalabad is still outside Taliban control.<br />
<br />
-Shalh Kaled first suggests an attack on New York's World Trade towers to Bin Laden.<br />
<br />
Sept.
-- Taliban takes Kabul and Jalalbad in civil war. Mullah Omar, leader
of the Taliban, gives protection and freedom of action to Bin Laden
and Al Qaeda after Bin Laden swears loyalty; but also to accommodate,
former anti-Soviet Jihadists who had been expelled from their home
countries and unemployed Jihadists from the recent Bosnian, Kashmir and
Chechen wars. A veteran Al Qaeda unit fights alongside the Taliban.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda's 3,000 fighters are known as the Taliban's 55th Brigade. Al Qaeda has 45,000 adherents in 60 countries.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda announces plans to expel foreigners from Islamic lands.<br />
<br />
1997- Zawahiri joins Bin Laden in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Bombs US Embassies in Nairobi and Dar Es Salaam.</b><br />
<br />
1998- August- Al Qaeda bombs US embassies inNairobi and Dar As Salaam, killing 227.<br />
<br />
-Wshington
places Bin Laden on its 10 most wanted list with a $5 million rewaerd
on his head. and demands the Taliban hand him over. Mullah Omae refuses.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Union Of Islamic Courts in Somalia.</b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
1998-2000 four sharia courts in Somalia bond together.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
2000- the Union of Islamic Courts. Is founded in Somalia.</div>
<br />
<b>Bin Laden Releases Fatwa against Americans and Jews.</b><br />
<br />
1999:<b> </b>Jordanian Sunni militant Abu Mussab al-Zarqawi flees his
country after a failed hotel bombing and moves his group, known then as
Tawhid and Jihad, to Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
-Bin
Laden releases a Fatwa calling for attacks on US citizens. Zawahiri
joins his Islamic Jihad with Bin Laden's World Islamic Front for Jihad
Against Crusaders and Jews. Zawahiri is in charge of ideology. Charter
members are Abu Yasser Rafia Ahmad Taha, Mir Hamza and Faz ul Rahman.
Among ists grievances are the UN sanctions against Iraq, US military
bases in Saudi Arabia, the existence of Israel and its domination of the
Palestinians. Its aims are the killing of any American or Israeli, the
liberation of Jerusalem's Al Aqsa Mosque and the Holy Mosque in Mecca
andto overthrow all the regimes in Muslim countries that supported
western interests.<br />
<br />
-Nov. 4- a US grand jury returns a 238 count indictment for murder and other charges against Bin Laden and Zawahiri.<br />
<br />
-Bin Laden gives the go-ahead to Sheikh Khaled to organize abd lauch the attack on the WTC in New York.<br />
<br />
1999-
20 members of the Muslim Brotherhood arrested for plotting to overthrow
the government and ifiltrating professional syndicates.<br />
<br />
-9/11 plans finalized by the Al Qaeda military committee.<br />
<br />
<b>Early Stages of 9/11 Attacks.</b><br />
<br />
-a
group of highly educated, disciplined Islamists living in Hamburg and
with experience of the West travel to to Afhganistan to meet Bin Laden
to plan the attack on the the WTC. <br />
<br />
<b>Syrian forerunners to Al Nusra.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2000 -Syrian Jihadists fighting alongside Al Qaeda leader Zarqawi in Herat, Afghanistan. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Bombs USS Cole in Yemen.</b><br />
<br />
2000- October- Al Qaeda bombs the USS Cole, docked in Aden, Yemen. US holds Bin Laden responsible.<br />
<br />
-the Muslim Brotherhood wins 17 seats in the Egyptian parliament.<br />
<br />
Dec.
-the US has the UN Security Council demand that the Taliban hand over
Bin Laden on pain of an arms embargo on Afghanistan. Mullah Omar
refuses.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2001- Abu Mohammed Jolani (Golani) (later to lead Al Nusra) under the command of Al Qaeda deputy leader Ayman al Zawahiri. </span><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span><br />
2001- Feb.- public trial in US of 4
conspirators in bombing of Kenyan and Ethiopian embassies enlarges Bin
Laden's following in the Muslim World.<br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda 9/11 hijackers begin arriving in the US<br />
<br />
-the hijack leader, Mohammed Atta meets Binalshibh in Spain to work out final details of WTC attack.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Executes 9/11 Attack on World Trade Towers.</b><br />
<br />
2001-
Sept 11- Al Qaeda operatives fly two passenger planes into the twin
towers of the World Trade centre in Manhattan, killing about 3,000. A
third plane is crashed into the Pentagon and a fourth crashes in a field
in Pennsylvania, killing all aboard.<br />
<br />
-the US names
Osama Bin Laden and Zawahiri as conspirators in the 9/11 plots. In vain,
the US demands that Mullah Omar hand over Bin Laden.<br />
<br />
2001-
Sept-- 9/11 Al Qaeda attacks on New York-: President Musharaff Sides
with Washington against Taliban-ruled Afghanistan, under severe pressure
from Assistant Secretary of State Armitage. This, however, gains
Pakistan badly needed international loans. <br />
<br />
Oct 7- Bin Laden and Al Zawahiri release a 20 minute statement claiming responsibility for the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
Nov. Mohammed Atef, Al Qaeda military commander killed by drone strike in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Dec.12 - Zacarias Musawi, a Moroccan born French citizen is the first suspect to be charged in the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi, the Progenitor of ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2002- Al Qaeda operative Musab al Zarqawi arrives in Iraq and founds Hai al Jamià Baghdad. Syrians who had been with Zarqawi in
Herat, Afghanistan are sent to build network branches in Syria and
Lebanon. Zarqawi would later exercise control from Iraq. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Yemen Cracks down on Al Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
-US and Yemen agree that mountain homeland of the Bin Ladens is a prime region for terror training camps.<br />
<br />
2002-
Feb. Yemen expels over 100 Islamic scholars, many of them English and
French nationals in a a move against Al Qaeda suspects.<br />
<br />
<b>Execution of Daniel Pearl.</b><br />
<br />
2002-
Feb 1- Wall Street Journalist Reporter Daniel Pearl decapitated in
Karachi by a Pakistani Al-Qaeda-linked organization led byAhmed Omar
Saeed Sheikh.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
March 2-- Abu Zubaydah, Al Qaeda's chief field and recruitment officer and Bin Laden's number 3 man, is arrested in Pakistan.<br />
<br />
April 11- 18 are killed in attack outside a Tunisian synagogue when Al Qaeda explodes an oil tanker.<br />
<br />
June 11- Jose Padilla is arrested landing in US from Pakistan and accused of hatching a 'dirty bomb' plot.<br />
<br />
Sept 11- Ramzi Bimalshibh, a high-ranking Al Qaeda member and one of the 9/11 plotters is arrested in Karachi.<br />
<br />
<br />
Oct. -the supertanker Limburg is heavily damaged off the coast of Yemen in attack. Al Qaeda is suspected.<br />
<br />
<b>The Bali Night Club Bombing and US and Allied Invasion of Afghanistan.</b><br />
<br />
Oct 12- Indonesia's Al-Qaeda-linked Jemaah Islamiya carries out massive attack on a Bali nightclub killing 202.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Nov.-
US and NATO invasion of Afghanistan. Taliban driven from Kabul. US
discovers video tape in which Bin Laden names 9 of the 9/11 hijackers
during a meeeting with radical Jeddah cleric Khalid Harbi.<br />
<br />
-Bin Ladin escapes to Tora Bora and tribal area of Waziristan.<br />
<br />
Nov. 28 -Al Qaeda claims responsibility for an attack on an Israeli-owned hotel in Mombassa, Kenya, killing 16<br />
<br />
<b>9/11 Planner Sheikh Khaled Arrested</b><br />
<br />
2003- March 1- Khaled Sheikh Mohammed- Bin Laden's architect of 9/11 is arrested in a CIA-Pakistani operation in Islamabad.<br />
<br />
-Washington asks the Pakistan's ISI to hand over al Qaeda militants, but the ISI only hands over foreign Al Qaeda foot soldiers.<br />
<br />
-Mounir Moutassadek is found guilty by a German court in Hamburg of helping to to mount the 9/11 attacks. He gets 12 years.<br />
<br />
<b>US Invasion of Iraq.</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">2003- US Invasion of Iraq: "The link between al-Nusra and the AQI is logical and should not be
surprising. Al-Nusra is formed of fighters who took part in the
post-2003 armed campaign against US forces in Iraq, jihadists who
essentially crossed into Iraq from Syria to commit terrorist atrocities
against US and Iraqi targets. Most of AQI's (Al Qaeda in Iraq) fighters were foreign
jihadists from neighbouring countries, in particular Syria. Al-Nusra's
leader, Jawlani, has himself acknowledged that he fought in Iraq
alongside AQI."- Rusi.org, April, 2013.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-Syria becomes the pipeline for sending jihadists into Iraq for the Zarqawi network, with safe houses kept by Syrian jihadists.</span> </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
August- Al Qaeda in Iraq begins a campaign of suicide bombing.</div>
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda-linked Attacks in Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Istanbul</b><br />
<br />
May 12- at least 34 killed in an Al Qaeda attack on foreign luxury compounds in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.<br />
<br />
May
16- Salafiya Jihadia, an al-Qaeda-linked Moroccan cell, kills 45 in
suicide bombings on international targets in Casablanca, Morocco.<br />
<br />
June 27 -Ali Abdul Rahman al Gamdi arrested in Riyadh suicide attacks.<br />
<br />
Dec. 15- 23 killed in suicide attacks on two Istanbul synagogues.<br />
<br />
Dec 20- 27 killed in double suicide bombing on the British Consulate and a British bank in Istanbul.<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan.</b><br />
<br />
-2003-2004- winter. The Pakistan army launches assaults against the Taliban and al Qaeda in Waziristan<br />
<br />
2004--March and June offensives against al Qaeda in the Afghan border area.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Abu Musab al Zarqawi prepares to lead Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b><br />
<br />
2004-
Feb 9- US discovers plot for Al Qaeda entry into Iraq by Abu Musab al
Zarqawi and plans to turn Sunni and Shia against one another.<br />
<br />
2004: Zarqawi renames his group al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), pledges
allegiance to Osama bin Laden, and steps up a deadly campaign against
U.S. and Iraqi targets. AQI’s ranks swell as Arab jihadists enter the
country to fight against the U.S., and the group also becomes notorious
for abducting foreigners and filming their execution. <br />
<br />
<b>The Madrid Train Bombings.</b><br />
<br />
March 11- Madrid train bombings by a group linked or sympathetic to Al Qaeda kill 191.<br />
<br />
April 15- A Bin laden tape offers a truce to all European countries that withdraw from the US's alleged war against Muslims.<br />
<br />
May
17- head of the Iraqi Governing Council killed in Al Qaeda attack. US
traces Zarqawi to a number of attacks incuding beheading of a US
hostage.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Attacks and Hostage Beheading in Saudi Arabia.</b><br />
<br />
May
30- 22 killed by Al Qaeda-linked group in foreigners' compound at
Khobar, Saudi Arabia before the compound is stormed by Saudi commandos.<br />
<br />
June
18- US hostage Paul Johnson beheaded by Al Qaeda group in Saudi Arabia.
Abdul Aziz al Muqin, head of Al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia, killed by
security forces.<br />
<br />
<b>Algeria, Kenya, Pakistan, Yemen.</b><br />
<br />
June- Abdelmalik Droukdel announces his arrival with a truck bomb
at the Algeria’s most important electrical production facility and
focuses on associating the GSPC with Al Qaeda. . “The Algerian
military says he cut his teeth in the 1990s as a member of the
Armed Islamic Group’s feared Ahoual or “horror” company, blamed for
some of the most gruesome massacres of Algeria’s civil war.” NYT<br />
<br />
-GSPC (al-Qaeda-linked Salafist Group for Call and Combat) declares war on all foreign nationals and interests in Algeria. <br />
<br />
July 30-2004 -capture of Ahmed Khalfin Ghalani, Al Qaeda operative linked to 1998 Kenya US embassy bombing.<br />
<br />
Sept
26- Amjad Farooqi, wanted in connection to AlQaeda murder of Daniel
Pearl, killed in shoot-out with Pakistani Police. Farooqi is closely
linked to Aby Faraj Al Libbi, Al Qaeda chief for Pakistan.<br />
<br />
Sept
29- 2004- A Yemeni court senteces two Al Qaeda operatives, Al-Bashiri
and Al Badawi to death for the attack on the USS Cole. Four others get
prison sentences.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi's Allegiance to Bin laden.</b><br />
<br />
-Oct- Abu Musab Al Zarqawi, leader of "Monotheism and Jihad" swears allegiance to Osama Bin Laden.<br />
<br />
Oct 29- days prior to US elections, Bin aden realeases video tape warning of more attacks on th US.<br />
<br />
2004-2005-
Pakistan- due to losses in the Waziristan offensive against the Taliban and al
Qaeda, Pakistan makes various peace deals with local Taliban-supporting
tribes. The Taliban effectively control Waziristan.<br />
<br />
<br />
-after Amjad Farooqi is killed in shoot out with police in
Karachi, Matiur Rehman takes his place as Al Qaeda planning director.
Matiur Rehman us alleged to have been involved in bombing of the Sheraton
Hotel in Karachi.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">-2005- Abu Musab
al-Sur, noted jihadi theorist followed by Al Nusra- " al-Suri was
arrested in Pakistan (2005), but for some reason was released and
handed over to Syria when the rebel uprising began (2011). It is
believed that
he freely resides somewhere within Syria’s borders and his teachings are
heavily influencing the strategies of the Al Nusra Front".- SOFREP,
March 24, 2013.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-Zaraqawi's Al Qaeda in Iraq becomes the Mujahedeen Shura Council after various armed factions are integrated.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2005:<b> </b> Senior AQI figure Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim Ali al-Badri (aka
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, aka Abu Du’a) – later described by Iraqi law
enforcement as an Islamic law PhD, and the group’s “spiritual leader”
during this period – is arrested and held at the U.S. military-run Camp
Bucca in southern Iraq. (Reports differ on whether he was held for one,
four or five years, and details of his release remain hazy.) </span></div>
<br />
2005-
14 April -Kamil Bourgass, Al Qaeda suspect found guilty of murdering a
police officer and threatening to spead ricin in Birtain, gets 17 year
sentence.<br />
<br />
-violence
escalates in Iraq, some of it sectarian, most of it still involving the
US military campaign against allied Sunni, Baathist and Al Qaeda
militants.<br />
<br />
April 22- Al Qaeda suspects go on trial in Madrid court for helping to plan 9/11 bombings.<br />
<br />
May
4- Faraj Al Libbi, Al Qaeda's number three after Zawahiri and head of
operations in Pakistan is arrested by pakistani police.<br />
<br />
<b>July 7, 2005 London Underground Bombings.</b><br />
<br />
July 7- Al-Qaeda inspired group brings off London underground bombings, killing 56.<br />
<br />
July 21- four more London underground bombings fail to detonate. Within days, four suspects are identified and arrested.<br />
<br />
<b>Sharm-al-Sheikh Bombings </b><br />
<br />
July
23- 61 killed in AlQaeda-linked bombings in the Egyptian Red Sea
rfesort of Sharm al-Sheikh. One suspect is killed by police in a
shootout with Islamists.<br />
<br />
August 19- rockets are fired at the Jordanian port city of Aqaba and at the nearby Israeli port city of Eliat.<br />
<br />
Sept. 26- Madrid Court sentences 18 men to prison terms for planning the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b> <br />
<br />
(July 2005)- Matuir Rehman involved in another plot on Musharraf- disrupted by police.<br />
<br />
Nov. 2005- Hamza Rabia, Al Qaeda International Operations commander killed by drone attack in North Waziristan.<br />
<br />
-Dec.
2005- Abu faraj al-Libbi- al Qaeda leader No. 3- involved in an
attempt on Musharraff at Rawalpindi. Libbi is arrested in Mardan. Matiur
Rehman is wanted in connection ith the same plot. <br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Algeria: GSPC links up, merges with Al Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
Dec
8- the extremist Algerian Salafist Group for Call and Combat
(GSPC) plans to set up an Al-Qaeda branch in the Maghreb countries
as a base for attacks to be launched on the countries that support
US administration.<br />
<br />
<br />
2006- January- Al Qaeda in the
Maghreb is officially formed from the Algerian GSPC, the Moroccan
GICM (responsible for the Casablanca and Madrid bombings in 2003
and 2004 respectively), and other Tunisian elements.<br />
<br />
<br />
2006- January 19- Bin Laden releases tape offering US the choice of a truce or new attacks.<br />
<b><br />
</b><br />
<b>Sacred Shia Al Askiriya Mosque blown up by Al Qaeda to iginite Sectarian war in Iraq </b><br />
<br />
February-
Al Qaeda in Iraq operatives blow up the Al Askiriya Mosque in Samarra,
sacred to Iraqi Shia, deliberately setting off an ethnic bloodbath
between Sunni and Shia Muslims.<br />
<br />
May 3- Zakarais Moussaoui is sentenced to life in US court. He is the sold person charged in the 9/11 attacks.<br />
<br />
<b>Zarqawi killed in targeted US air attack near Baghdad.</b><br />
<br />
June 7- Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al Zarqawi is killed in a targeted US air strike northeast of Baghdad.<br />
<br />
July 12- British-Pakistani terrorists arrested for plan to bomb 12 airliners during an Atlantic crossing. <br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b> <br />
<br />
July-
Osama Bin Laden announces al Qaeda will oppose with force any
intervention in Somalia where he backs the idea of an Islamic state.<br />
<br />
Sept
3- Al Qaeda in Iraq's number 2 man, Jama Al Saedi is captured by Iraqi
authorities. Al Saedi planned the bombing of the Al Askiriya shrine.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Al Qaeda in the Maghreb.</span><br />
<br />
Sept 11- Ayman Zawahiri of Al Qaeda announces the formation of Al Qaeda in the Maghreb.<br />
<br />
<b>Zawahiri announces creation of Al Qaeda in the Maghreb (AQIM) from merger.</b><br />
<br />
Sept
14- Ayman Al Zawahiri announces the merger of the Algerian militant
group, the GSPC with Al Qaeda, creating Al Qaeda in the Maghredb (AQIM)<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>ISI before ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
2006- Oct 6- Al Qaeda in Iraq becomes the Islamic State Of Iraq (ISI) founded as an umbrella group for Sunni militant organizations including Al Qaeda. A<span style="font-size: small;">fter the death of Zarqawi, Abu Hamza al-Muhajir and Abu Omar
al-Baghdadi take the lead of Al Qaeda in Iraq.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Al Zawi heads Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Oct. 2006: AQI renames itself Islamic State of Iraq, and its
leader is identified as Hamid Dawud al-Zawi (aka Abu-Omar al-Baghdadi),
an Iraqi. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b><br />
<br />
-Oct. -many of
the British Pakistanis later suspected in the August 2006 attempted
airline bombings in London travelled to Muzaffarabad as humanitarian
earthquake relief in Jamiat ud Dawa, whose umbrella organization is
Lashakr e Toiba. Membrs of the al Qaeda-linked Jundullah, a Pakistani
terror group took them to training camps in Waziristan before returning
to relief camps.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Tunisia</b> <br />
<br />
Dec 2006 to January 2007- (Dec. 23, Jan 3) Algerian Salafist groups
engage Tunisian police and army units with 14 terrorists and some police
killed.<br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dec.
4- US General John Abizaid visits Adis Ababba. The United States,
worried about assistance being given to Somali Islamists by Al Qaeda,
has covertly backed Ethiopia.</div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2007: AQIM in the Sahel.</span><br />
<br />
February-
news reports point to Al Qaeda training camps in the Sahel from
Senegal to Ethiopia with plans to attack targets in Europe.<br />
<br />
Feb
13- GSPC claims responsibility for car bombings in Boumerdas and
Tizi Ouzou, on the Berber region of Kabylia in eastern Algeria.
(This was a center of resistance during the Algerian war).<br />
<br />
<br />
-Feb
16 - in the mountain region of Qashra near the town of Skikda,
Alergian police kill 26 and arrest 35 militants in response to the Feb
13 car bombings.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Al Qaeda in the Maghreb (GSPC) : terror operations in Algeria and Morocco.</span><br />
<br />
Feb
20- Moroccan police search for Hmam Bilal et Bel Hachmi and
Mohamed Rida who are accused of having ties with groups including
the Algeria-based al Qaeda Organisation in the Islamic Maghreb,<br />
<br />
March 11- suicide bombing in Casablanca internet cafe.<br />
<br />
<br />
2007- March 15- Mohammed Sheikh Khaled admits to planning the 9/11 attacks and 30 others at a hearing at Guantanamo Bay.<br />
<br />
March
27- at a hearing at Gunatanamo Bay, Australian convert to Islam David
Hicks, confesses to support for terrorist operations.<br />
<br />
April 10- three suicide blasts kill and wound police in raid on Casablanca safe house.<br />
<br />
April 11- Algiers- bombings of the police station and prime minister’s office claim 17 lives. Claimed by Al Qaeda.<br />
<br />
April 14- two suicide bombings on US diplomatic offices in Casablanca.<br />
<br />
<br />
April 27- high Al Qaeda operative, Al Hadi Al Iraqi, is captured by the US on his way to take over Al Qaeda operations in Iraq.<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b><br />
<br />
-March-April- 250 killed in clashes between South Waziristan tribesmen and al Qaeda militants.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<br />
2007- <span style="font-size: small;">Syrian government cracks down on the late
Zarqawi`s Syrian jihadists and safe houses. The fighters leave Syria for
refuge in Iraq.</span><br />
<br />
<b>IRAQ: us troop surge against Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2007:</b> Anbar-based tribal “awakening” campaign against ISI (AQI) and
other militants and “surge” of troop reinforcements sent in by
President Bush helps to stem the tide of violence, marking a turning
point in the Iraq conflict.-U.S.
General Petraeus adopts sophisticated, modern counterinsurgency methods
against Sunni insurgents as part of the troop surge. US marines make
tactical alliances with Sunni Sheikhs and other former nsurgents in
Anbar province who are tired of al Qaeda's excesses and violations of
Islam. The Anbar Salvation Front becomes the first of several local
Sunni paramilitary organizations to aly itself with the U.S..<br />
<br />
<br />
-in the fall, despite
the success of the Sunni local self-defense organizations in Anbar and
Diyala, fighting al Qaeda alongside U.S. forces, al Qaeda manages to
assassinate come of their leaders.<br />
<br />
<b>Algeria</b><br />
<br />
June 11- suicide truck bomb kills soldiers at military barracks near Algiers. GSPC claims responsibility.<br />
<br />
<b>Life Sentences for the London underground bombers.</b><br />
<br />
July 11- four men arrested in the July 21 2005 London underground bombings receive life sentences.<br />
<br />
Sept 6- suicide blast kills twenty prior to vistit of President Boutefilka near Algiers.<br />
<br />
Sept. 7-8- 50 die in two conseutive bombings in Algeria. Al Qaeda in the Maghreb claims responsibility.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Sept 8- GSPC claims responsibility for bombing of military barracks, killing 37 at Dellys, Algeria.<br />
<br />
Oct 7- Zareg Zoheir, mastermind of GSPC suicide bombings killed by Algerian police.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Pakistan</b><br />
<br />
<br />
2007- Pakistan rejects US claims that al Qaeda members are hiding in Pakistan.<br />
<br />
Oct 18- Pakistan PPP parry leader Benazir Bhutto survives bombing attack as she arrives in Karachi, returning from exile.<br />
<br />
<b>Three get life in Madrid train bombings.</b><br />
<br />
Oct 31- Madrid Court sentences three men to life in the Madrid train bombings.<br />
<br />
Dec. 12- suicide bombings on Algeria's supreme court and on an Algiers UN agency kill 40.<br />
<br />
Dec.
27- Benazir Bhutto is killed in a bombing attack on her motorcade while
campainging in Islamabad, Pakistan. Pakistani authorities say
Waziristan Al Qaeda leader Baitullah Mehsud is responsible.<br />
<br />
2008- Jan. 29- Abu Haith Al Libi, Al Qaeda military commander killed in drone strike in North Waziristan.<br />
<br />
<br />
March
31- at Guantanamo Bay, Al Qaeda operative Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani is
charged with crimes in the 1998 Kenya Embassy bombing.<br />
<br />
<b>Change of Tactics by Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2008- having alienated Sunnis in Iraq and driven their
fighters into the arms of the Americans, Al Qaeda changes its strategy
and rhetoric to attract local support. Al Nusra's local effectiveness
in Syria is an indirect result. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b></b>
<br />
-second in command of ISI (Al Qaeda in Iraq) is killed by US military in Mosul.<br />
<br />
<b>Khaled, architect of 9/11 in trial in US.</b><br />
<br />
June
6- Mohammed Sheikh Khaled, self-confessed planner of the 9/11 attacks,
tells a US tribunal at Gunatanmo Bay that he wants to die as a martyr.<br />
<br />
July 6- Salim Hamdan, a Yemeni and Osama Bin Laden's former driver, is convicted of war crimes at a tribunal in Gunatanamo Bay.<br />
<br />
-July 28- Abu Khebab al Masri, Al Qaeda expert on weapons of mass destruction killed in drone strike.<br />
<br />
<br />
Aug,
22-26 Shabab Islamist militia takes the port of Kismayo, Somalia's 3rd
largest city, leaving 70 dead with plans to join Al Qaeda. <br />
<br />
-Fall-
Najibullah Zazi and three others receive al Qaeda training in
Afghanistan; will soon plot to attack subway stations in New York City.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula arises from merger.</b> <br />
<br />
2009-
Jan-March- the Yemeni and Saudi affiliates of Al Qaeda merge into Al
Qaeda in the Arabian peninsula, affiliated by the Yemen-based US-Muslim
preacher, Al Awlaki. The Yemeni and Saudi affiliates of Al Qaeda merge into Al
Qaeda in the Arabian peninsula. AQAP formed from a merger of al Qaeda's
Yemeni and Saudi branches and led by Nasir ul-Wuhayshi. The Saudi group
had been effectively suppressed by the Saudi government, forcing its
members to seek sanctuary in Yemen.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-novak_7-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda_in_the_Arabian_Peninsula#cite_note-novak-7"> </a></sup>It is believed to have several hundred members.<br />
<br />
<br />
Feb. -Yemeni government Announces release of five Al Qaeda suspects on condition of good behaviour.<br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b><br />
<br />
<br />
2009 January
- Ethiopia completes the withdrawal of its troops. Fighters from the Al-Qaeda-linked
radical Islamist al-Shabab militia take control of the town of Baidoa,
formerly a key stronghold of the transitional government.<br />
<br />
March 19- Osama Bin Laden releases tape in which he urges Islamists to overthrow President Ahmed.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda in the Maghreb.</b><br />
<br />
2009 May - Algeria begins sending military equipment
to Mali in preparation for a joint operation against Al Qaeda in the Maghreb <br />
<br />
<b>Somalia</b><br />
<br />
<br />
2009<b> </b>June
- Somalia's security minister and more than 20 other people are killed
in a suicide bombing at a hotel in Beledweyne, north of the capital
Mogadishu. Al Shabab, working closely with Al Qaeda, declares
responsibility. President Ahmed declares a state of emergency as
violence intensifies. Somali officials appeal to neighbouring countries
to send troops to Somalia, as government forces continue to battle
Islamist insurgents.<br />
<br />
<b>Lebanon</b><br />
<br />
July- Lebanese army arrests 10 suspected Al Qaeda operatives believed
to be planning attacks on UN peacekeepers in the south of Lebanon.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Baghdadi, head of Al Qaeda in Iraq killed near Tikrit.</b><br />
<br />
(Dec 2009)- the Islamic State of Iraq, sometimes called an
al Qaeda franchise, claims responsibility for a mass of bombings in
Baghdad killing 127, as well as other killings in August and October
killing 240.<br />
<br />
2010-
January- according to US Defense Secretary Robert Gates, Al Qaeda is
planning to destabilize Pakistan and ingite a nuclear war between
Pakistan and India. <br />
<br />
<br />
2010- April 18- leader of ISI or Al Qaeda in Iraq, Abu Omar al Baghdadi, killed outside Tikrit.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Failed Times Square bombing.</b><br />
<br />
May- Faisal Sahazad is arrested in a failed attempt to bomb Times Square using a van packed with explosives.<br />
<br />
<b>Yemen</b> <br />
<br />
2010- President Saleh says he will open talks with Al Qaeda militants provided they renounce violence.<br />
2010- June 19- Four al Qaeda gunmen dressed in women’s clothing attacked
an intelligence headquarters in Aden and freed several suspected al
Qaeda militants. On June 21 Yemen announced the arrest of the attack’s
mastermind. Security forces investigating the attack made several
arrests on June 25 in Aden during house-to-house searches. On July 11,
AQAP claimed that its Martyr Jamil al Anbari Brigade carried out the
attack. An AQAP statement stated the attack killed 24 officers and
soldiers, deviating from the government’s report of 11 killed. AQAP also
denied that the government had captured those responsible for the
attack<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Mauretania</b><br />
<br />
2010 Jul 24, French-backed
Mauritanian military operations against al Qaeda fighters in the
Sahara desert wound up after four days of hunting Islamists deep
inside Mali.<br />
<br />
2010- Sep 17, The Mauritanian
army launched an offensive against the North African branch of
al-Qaida in neighboring Mali. At least 12 militants died and five
Mauritanians were killed in the operation, which was launched
inside northern Mali with permission<br />
<br />
-Sept. -Najiibullah Zazi arrested for attempting to bomb subway stataions in new York City.<br />
<br />
<b>Conviction of would-be London Airline bombers</b><br />
<br />
-Sept-
conviction by a London court of the three Al Qaeda-linked bombers who
conspired to blow transatlantic passenger jets out of the air using
smuggled liquid explosives.<br />
<br />
<br />
- Sept- Drone
missile strike in Pakistan kills Ilyas Kashmiri, Al Qaeda military
commander and head of the Al Qaeda-affiliated Kashmir insurgent group.
Harkat-ul-Jihad-e-Islami. <br />
<br />
<b>Taliban Severs Ties with Al Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
-Taliban has severed its last ties with al Qaeda. 100 Al Qaeda fighter remain in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
<br />
Aug
12- Osama Bin Laden's former cook and driver, Ibrahim al Qosi, is
sentenced to 14 years in prison for providing material support to
terrorism. A plea bargain is pending.<br />
<br />
<b>Yemen</b><br />
<br />
Oct-
government troops under US pressure fighting Al Qaeda in difficult,
rugged terrain of South Yemen, particularly in the Abyan region.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda Massacres Christians</b> <br />
<br />
October 31, 2010- 52 are masscred in an Al Qaeda hostage taking and attack on a Syrian Christian chruch in Baghdad.<br />
<br />
<b>Maliki Alienates Sunnis in Iraq.</b> <br />
<br />
New elections in Iraq sow the seeds of future discontent. Iraqiyya, a
secular and religiously mixed bloc led by Ayad Allawi, a former British
exile, win a narrow majority of votes, but the Shia bloc run by current
prime minister, Nouri al-Maliki, regains power after forming a governing
coalitiion with Iranian-backed parties. Rather than handing key
security positions to his opponents as promised, Mr Maliki concentrates
power in his own hands, alienating the Sunni community. <br />
<br />
Dec. 4- Osama Bin Laden believed to be in Ghazni province, Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
Dec 8- Salh al Somali, coordinatior of Al Qaeda in Afhganistan and Pakistan witg Al Qaeda abroad is killed in a drone strike.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Underwear Airline Bomber Trained in Yemen under Al Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
-Al Qaeda claims responsibility for the Christmas attack on a US airliner by<br />
the 'underwear bomber.' Sana'a asks for the West's support in the war on terror.<br />
<br />
Dec
25- Umar Farouk Abdulmatallab, the "Underwear Bomber", arrested for
attempting to blow up Northwest Airlines Flight 253. He had been
trained in Yemen by 'Al Qaeda in the Arabian<br />
Peninsuala."<br />
<br />
<b>US State Department Concerned about Al Qaeda in Yemen.</b><br />
<br />
2011 January - US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visits to express "urgent concern" at al-Qaeda activities in Yemen.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="January_2011_Iraq_suicide_attacks"><b>2011 Suicide Attacks in Iraq.</b> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="January_2011_Iraq_suicide_attacks">January 2011 Iraq suicide attacks</span> </span>were a series of three consecutive suicide bombings in Iraq which left at least 133 dead.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><b>Al Badri succeeds Al Zawi as head of Al Qaeda in Iraq.</b> </span><br />
<br />
Apr. 2010: Al-Zawi is killed in a U.S. airstrike; Al-Badri, viewed as secretive and ambitious, is promoted to the leadership.<br />
<br />
April 26, 2011: NATO reveals that Abu Hafs al-Najdi,
also known as Abdul Ghani, a regional commander in Afghanistan in charge
of suicide bombings and cash flow, was killed by an airstrike earlier
in the month.<br />
<br />
April 25, 2011: The Al unnah Al Nawabiah Mosque in Montreal
was among nine houses of prayer or Islamic institutes worldwide
considered by the U.S. military to be places where "known al-Qaeda
members were recruited, facilitated or trained," according to leaked
classified American intelligence documents.<br />
<br />
<b>US Special Forces Kill Osama Bin Laden.</b><br />
<br />
April 26, 2011: NATO reveals that Abu Hafs al-Najdi,
also known as Abdul Ghani, a regional commander in Afghanistan in
charge of suicide bombings and cash flow, was killed by an airstrike
earlier in the month.<br />
<br />
May 1, 2011: Osama Bin Laden, head of Al Qaeda is killed when CIA paramilitaries and a Navy SEAL team attack his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria- the Al Nusra Front- Independant fromAl Qaeda.</b><br />
<br />
Aug. 2011: Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri threatens on an AQI website to carry out 100
attacks across Iraq to avenge the death of bin Laden three months
earlier.<br />
<br />
<b>US Assassinates Al Qaeda Preacher Awlaki</b><br />
<br />
Sept- US-born al-Qaeda leader Anwar al-Awlaki is assassinated by US forces.<br />
<br />
<b>Iraq</b> <br />
<br />
Oct. 2011: State Department lists al-Badri as a specially designated global terrorist, offers a $10 million reward for information leading to his location.<br />
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">2011- Syrian Jihadists begin to return from Iraq for the Syrian uprising. Some form 'Al Nusra' which means.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Oct- in Homs and Rif Dimashq jihadists discuss Al Nusra's
founding and objectives. </span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">.</span><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="st" data-hveid="58"> 'Al Nusra' means "The Support Front for the People of the Levant [Greater Syria]" </span></span>At its founding, it had no affiliation with Al
Qaeda.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2011- Dec.- veteran jihadists of deceased Al Qaeda in
Iraq leader Abu Musab al Zarqawi, leave Iraq, crossing the border to
Syria to join in the Arab Spring rebellion against the Assad regime.
Jabhat Al Nusra (JN) claims to fight on behalf of the Syria's
increasingly oppressed Sunni majority and against Syria's ruling Shia
Alawite sect and its allies which include Shia Iran and the Shia
Hezbollah organization and militia in Lebanon. </span><br />
<br />
<b>Yemen</b><br />
<br />
2011- Dec 13- Yemeni security forces arrested six “well-known” al Qaeda in the Arabian
Peninsula (AQAP) operatives in Yemen; among the operatives was
high-value target and leader of AQAP in al Jawf governorate, Musaed al
Barbari. A stockpile of weapons and “training manuals” were found in his
possession. The suspects, including Barbari, Mohamed Hussein Musayyib,
Mohammad Abdulkadir Ahmed al Shihri, Nader Ahmad Mohamed al Qubati,
Mohamed Muthana Ali al Amari, and Abdul Munaim Hamid Ali Abu Ghanem, had
been planning attacks targeting high-ranking security officials,
foreign embassies, and government buildings in Yemen. Also, the suspects
had been “actively recruiting fighters” to join Ansar al Sharia
militants fighting in Abyan and Shabwah governorates. Separately, three
fugitives who escaped from al Mansoura Central Security prison in Aden
on December 11 were captured <br />
<br />
<b>Iraq: Maliki moves against Sunni VP al-Hashemi. </b><br />
<br />
December, 2011- Mr Maliki issues an arrest warrant for Tariq al-Hashemi, Iraq's Sunni
vice-president, who flees abroad. The government claims Mr Hashemi has
been using his bodyguards for terrorism campaigns, but Iraq's Sunnis see
it as a sectarian smear campaign against his political rivals. Mr
Maliki replaces competent military leaders who had worked with the
Americans with political cronies, undermining the military's strength
just when the US is pulling out its forces.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>Syria: Al Nusra (JN).</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Dec. 23- suicide car bombs kill 44 in Damascus. Al Nusra claims responsibility.</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2102- Jan- al Nusra meetings continue in Rif Damashq and Homs.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">
2012- Jan 6- Al Nusra suicide bombing carried out by Abu al-Baraa al-Shami in Midan District of Damascus kills 26. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">-in late January, ``the jihadist group Jabhat al-Nusra li Ahl Ash-Sham, or
the Support Front for the People of Syria, announced its formation and
goal to bring down the regime of President Bashar Assad.`` -TIME.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">
2012- Jan 23- In its inaugural video Al Nusra claims an attack on
a government security installation in Idlib. "We are Syrian mujahideen,
back from various jihad fronts to restore
God's rule on the Earth and avenge the Syrians' violated honour and
spilled blood," a masked man declared in the video. (BBC)</span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">2012- 10 Feb Al Nusra (JN) suicide bombings kill 28 in Aleppo.</span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /> </span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2102- March 17- two car bombs in Damasucs kill 27.</span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- March-April- JN
expands after many leading jihadists from Lebanese Fatah al-Islam and
Palestinian groups joined the leadership and were able to secure
sponsorship of key jihadi ideologues including Sheikh Abu al-Mundhir
al-Shinqiti, Sheikh Abu Muhammad. JN may be responsible for bombings
carried out on this date.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- May 29- On 29 May 2012, a mass execution was discovered near the
eastern city of Deir ez-Zor. The unidentified corpses of 13 government
soldiers had been discovered shot to death execution-style. JN (Al Nusra) later
claimed responsibility.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- June 17- Walid Ahmad al-Ayesh, described by Syrian authorities as
the "right hand" of the Al-Nusra Front, was killed when Syrian
authorities discovered his hiding place. He was reportedly responsible
for the making of car bombs that were used to attack Damascus in the
previous months. (Wikipedia)</span>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- June 27- JN blows up a pro-government TV station in the town of Drousha, just south of the capital Damascus.</span><br />
<br />
<b>Yemen Captures Al Qaeda Strongholds. </b><br />
<br />
2012 June - The army recaptures three al-Qaeda strongholds in the south - Shuqra, Zinjibar and Jaar.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> <b>AQI leader al Badri helps to establish al Nusra.</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012:<b> </b>Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri starts focusing attention on the jihad against
President Bashar Assad’s regime in Syria, where he reportedly helps to
establish an al-Qaeda affiliate, the al-Nusra Front, under the
leadership of a former Zarqawi deputy. </span>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Chechnya</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Summer- Jaish al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar (Army of Emigrants and Helpers)- is founded by Chechen fighters as a Jihadi group for foreign fighters.<b> </b></span></div>
<b> </b><br />
<b>Al Qaeda Offensive in Mali</b><br />
<br />
<br />
June 30, 2012- Armed Islamists destroy ancient tombs of Muslim saints that offend
their puritan views in the
desert city of Timbuktu and threaten to wipe out every religious shrine
there. They impose sharia, the strict and often brutal Islamic law.<br />
<br />
-summer of 2012, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb and Ansar Dine,
another radical Islamist group, took advantage of the instability and
an increasingly weak military in Mali and captured Timbuktu, Kidal, and
Gao, cities in the north. They implemented and brutally enforced
Shariah, or Islamic law.<br />
<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>Al Nusra in Syria.</b></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- July 15 (circa) JN executes popular TV news presenter Mohammed al-Saeed</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
2012- August 12- a JN leader, Wael Mohammad al-Majdalawi, killed in a government operation in Damascus.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>Al Qaeda offshoot Kills US Ambassador in Bengazi, Libya. </b> </div>
<br />
September 2012- militants armed with antiaircraft weapons
and rocket-propelled grenades fired upon the American consulate in
Benghazi, Libya, killing U.S. ambassador to Libya Christopher Stevens
and three other embassy officials. U.S. secretary of state Hillary
Clinton said the U.S. believed that al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, a
group closely linked to al-Qaeda, orchestrated the attack.<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br />
<b>Iraq's Sunnis and the Arab Spring.</b> <br />
<br />
Fall, 2012- Belatedly inspired by the Arab Spring movements in neighbouring
countries, Sunnis begin a series of mass civil rights demonstrations,
alleging that they are treated as second-class citizens by Mr Maliki's
government. While their grievances get a limited hearing in the wider
world - Sunnis, after all, enjoyed privileged lives during the reign of
Saddam Hussein - Western diplomats in Baghdad concede that they have
some grounds for complaint. In particular, the protesters allege
harassment by the security forces and discrimination in getting
government jobs.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<b> </b><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Oct 3- three car bombs explode in central Aleppo killing 44.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"> 2012- 12 Oct- attacks on a Syrian air defense base near Aleppo; they reportedly destroyed buildings and sabotaged
radar and rockets after overrunning the base in cooperation with the
al-Fajr Islamic Movement.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-attack on the the Hanano
barracks in Aleppo city killing 11 government soldiers. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-attack on the the Suluq barracks in Raqqah wherw they claimed
killing 32 soldiers.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-other attacks in October, 2012: the military base at Wadi Deif and Taftanaz air base. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Progress of Al Nusra.</b> </span> </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">-JN seized three army checkpoints around Saraqeb at the end of
October 2012, forcing the Syrian Army to withdraw from the area the next
day. In the battle, 28 Syrian soldiers were killed as well as five
Nusra fighters. Some of the captured soldiers were summarily executed
after being called "Assad dogs". (Wikipedia)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- early November- car bomb kills 2 in a rural development center in Sahl al-Ghab in Hama.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>-Islamist militias in Aleppo,
including the Al-Nusra and Al-Tawhid groups refuse to join the
Coalition of opposition groups denouncing it as a "conspiracy"</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">-suicide bombing in Mezzeh neighbourhood of Damascus kills
11 people.</span></div>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">-by the end of 2012- Al
Nusra units have become the shock troops of the armed Syrian
opposition, the best armed, funded, trained and disciplined of all the
rebel groups, Al Nusra can turn the tide wherever rebel lines run into
trouble.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> Dec. 11: The Obama administration declares Al Nusra with alleged ties to al-Qaida as a terrorist organization. <span style="font-size: small;"> A group of 29 opposition groups, including both fighting
units and civilian organizations signed an online petition calling for
demonstrations in its support.</span> </span> <br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. -US lists al-Nusra as a terrorist organisation, A group of 29 opposition groups, including both fighting
units and civilian organisations signed an online petition calling for
demonstrations in its support. </span> </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. Al Nusra reported to have entered Lebanon:
"Senior Lebanese security officials have confirmed that there has been a
noticeable increase in jihadist elements associated with al-Qaeda within
Lebanon. This increase is naturally linked to armed elements in Syria
and the stated and covert positions taken by some Lebanese political
forces towards the conflict in Damascus. However, the same security
apparatus has revealed in an exclusive interview that their
investigations have determined that the most recent statement made by Al
Nusra was authored in north Lebanon. The email address responsible for
posting the statement on the internet was traced to Tripoli, the capital
of the North Governorate and close to the Syrian border." Al-Monitor,
Dec. 24, 2102.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2012- Dec. 23- JN declares "no-fly-zone" over Aleppo, using 23 mm and 57 mm anti-aircraft guns.</span></div>
<br />
<b>Continued Marginalization of Sunnis in Iraq.</b> <br />
<br />
December, 2012- The arrest of Rafaie al-Esawi, a finance minister who is one of the last
prominent Sunnis in government, galvanises the protests further. The
growing sense of alienation with the government provides a ready source
of new recruits to al-Qaeda, which has re-energised in western Iraq
thanks to its campaign against President Bashar al-Assad in neighbouring
Syria. While many Sunnis do not share al-Qaeda's extreme religious
vision, they are willing to help it fight Mr Maliki's government.<br />
<br />
<b>Mali</b> <br />
<br />
December 20: The UN Security Council unanimously approves sending an
African-led force to help reconquer northern Mali from the Islamist
militants. However the Council says all possible diplomatic avenues must
be exhausted before force can be used.<br />
<br />
<b>French Offensive Against Al Qaeda in Mali</b> <br />
<u><br /></u>
<br />
2013 January - Islamist fighters capture the
central town of Konna and say they will push further south. President
Traore asks France for help and Paris responds by sending troops and
carrying out air strikes on rebel bases.<br />
<br />
January 2013- militants pushed into the southern part of Mali,
crossing into the area controlled by the government. France sent about
2,150 troops to Mali to push them back. By the end of January, French
troops pushed the militants out of Gao and Timbuktu, forcing them back
to northern Mali.<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>Al Qaeda Operation on Gas Plant in Almenas, Algeria.</b></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
January 16, 2013, Islamic militants entered neighboring Algeria from Mali
and took dozens of foreign hostages at the BP-controlled In Amenas gas
field. Algerian officials said the militants were members of an offshoot
of al-Qaeda called Al Mulathameen and were acting in retaliation for
France's intervention in Mali. On Jan. 17, Algerian troops stormed the
complex and attacked the kidnappers. By the end of the standoff on Jan.
20, 29 militants and 37 hostages were killed. Three Americans were among
the dead.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria: Al Nusra</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">2013- January- JN takes
over the distribution of flour in Aleppo in the wake of the hoarding
and sale of flour by the Syrian Free Army. "The Nusra Front is outside
the FSA and has a reputation for discipline and honesty." BBC.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">2013- February- Al Nusra fighters were involved in fighting in Safira
with regime reinforcements, preventing these forces from reaching their
destination of the city of Aleppo. (Al Jazeera)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">"Danish reports say at least 30 Danish Muslims have gone to fight with al
Nusra in Syria. Senior European intelligence officials have told me
that there is a wave of angry young Muslim men from all across Western
Europe going to Syria to join al Qaeda and fight Assad." The Daily Beast, Feb 23, 2013.</span></div>
<br />
<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">-As of early 2013 al-Nusra is estimated to have around 5000 members. (Wikipedia) </span><br />
<br />
<b>Iraq: Spate of Al Qaeda Bombings.</b><br />
<br />
2013- Jan 16- Bombings in Kurdish Iraq Kill More Than 20.<b> </b> <br />
<br />
2013 February - About 35 people are killed
in two attacks. At least 19 died in a suicide bombing of an
anti-al-Qaeda militia in Taji, north of Baghdad, and at least 16 people
died in a raid on a police station in Kirkuk, northern Iraq.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><b>Syria</b> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;">2013- March- JN has claimed responsibility for 57 of the 69 suicide attacks in Syria during the conflict. (Wikipedia).<sup> </sup></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;">2013- March 13- </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Anti-regime
activists took to the streets of rebel-held Mayadeen in eastern Syria
on Wednesday for a third straight day to demand that jihadist Al-Nusra
Front fighters leave the town.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">March, 2013-<b> </b>Jihadists
rebels control large parts of the three provinces that make up
northeastern and are working to install the foundations for an Islamic
state.Extremist rebels — mostly from large armed groups Ahrar al Sham
and Jabhat al Nusra took the provincial capital of Raqqa, Syria’s sixth
largest city and the first to fall into rebel hands. </span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<b>Iraq: Dramatic Increase in Anti Shia and Al Qaeda Attacks.</b><br />
<b> </b> <br />
2013
March - A series of coordinated car bomb and suicide attacks hit
government buildings in Baghdad, killing at least 24. Attacks and
explosions by al-Qaeda, mainly in Shia
neighbourhoods in and around Baghdad, kill 50 people on eve of the 10th
anniversary of the US-led invasion.<br />
<br />
2013- March 16- Car Bombs Kill 56 Civilians in Iraq. On the eve of the
ten year anniversary of the U.S. invasion, over a dozen bombings took
place throughout Baghdad, killing at least 56 people and wounding over
200 <br />
<br />
2013 April - At least 31 people are killed
and more than 200 others wounded in explosions in cities across the
country, including Kurdistan. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><b>Power Struggle as ISIS claims authority over Al Nusra. </b></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">2013-
April 8- Abu Bakr Al Baghdadi, leader of 'The Islamic State of Iraq'
(Al Qaeda) releases video stating that JN leader Abu Mohammed al
Golani had been sent into Syria to announce the union of JN and 'The
Islamic State of Iraq' and that the latter had already been supplying JN
with finding and strategy for several months. From now the entire
organisation was to bear the name, "The Islamic State of Iraq and Al
Sham."</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">2013- April 9- JN leader Golani denies any such merger exists but that AN and Al Qaeda are still allies.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<b>Aharar Al Sham Distances itself from Al Nusra; Al Nusra Splits.</b><br />
<br />
From The Economist: "Hitherto the most prominent of the extreme Islamist groups has been
Jabhat al-Nusra, which may have 7,000 or so fighters. But recently it
has been bogged down in a power struggle with al-Qaeda in Iraq, led by
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. After Jabhat al-Nusra’s leaders, led by Abu
Muhammad al-Golani, refused to submit to his rule, the group split: a
more extreme branch merged with the Iraqi brethren, forming the Islamic
State of Iraq and al-Sham. It has recently clashed with other Syrian
groups, something Ahrar al-Sham has so far avoided. As Jabhat al-Nusra’s
clout has weakened, Ahrar al-Sham’s has grown stronger." (July 20, 2013)<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">2013- April 20- The Syrian National Coalition rejects any association with Al Qaeda:</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">“We reject the thoughts of al-Qaeda. Syria is a country where
moderate Islam prevails,” said Moaz al-Khatib, head of the main
opposition group, the Syrian National Coalition. “The bottom line is
that al-Qaeda’s ideology doesn’t suit us, and rebels in Syria have to
take a clear stance about this.” His call has been heeded. “We don’t
support the ideology of al-Nusra,” said Louay Meqdad, spokesman for the
rebel Free Syrian Army. “When we in Syria launched our jihad
(holy war) against the sectarian regime... we did not do so for the sake
of any allegiance to a man here or another there,” said the Syrian
Islamic Liberation Front, an umbrella group of some 20 rebel brigades,
including some of the most prominent. “Pledging allegiance to someone
who does not understand our reality does not serve our people or
nation.” (Al Arabiya, April 22, 2013)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"> </span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<b>The Boston Marathon Bombing.</b></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br />
April
15, 2013- Two bombs exploded at and near the finish line of the Boston
Marathon killing three and maiming dozens. Two suspects, the brothers,
Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev, who were inspired by Al Qaeda, were
hunted down, the former killed, the last seriously wounded. </div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
</div>
April
22, 2013- Two men of Muslim background arrested in Toronto and Montreal
before executing a plan to bomb a Via Rail Train between Toronto and New
York City.<br />
<br />
<b>Iraqi Army Attacks Iraqi Sunnis.</b><br />
<br />
April, 2013- Iraqi troops antagonise the Sunni community further when they attack a
protest camp in the town of Hawijah in northern Iraq, killing 53 people.
While the Iraqi government claims that the camp had become a haven for
al-Qaeda militants, who had fired on them first, the raid prompts
fighting that spills across northern Iraq. Gunmen briefly sieze one town
and declare it to be "liberated" from government rule.<br />
<br />
2013 May - Anti-Shia sectarian attacks continue, with 70 people killed in one day. </div>
<br />
<b>Al Zawahiri Defends al Qaeda's Al Nusra from claims of merger by ISIS.</b><br />
<br />
May 2013: Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Al-Badri declares merger of AQI and al-Nusra under the
name Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), or alternatively, the
Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The perceived power grab
is rejected by al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri, who declares that
al-Nusra is the only al-Qaeda affiliate engaged in the anti-Assad
campaign. Al-Badri ignores al-Zawahiri’s instructions to focus on Iraq,
and instead continues operations in both countries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Somalia- Al Shebab</b><br />
<br />
2013- June 28: UN reports that the Al-Shabaab spiritual leader Sheikh Hassan
Dahir Aweys has turned himself in to pro-government officials in the
central town of Adado. Local elders assert that he and his militia are
stationed in the central Galmudug region, having fled from their own
comrades in Al-Shabaab-controlled territory after a bout of infighting.
According to the Shabelle Media Network, legislators and elders flew in
to the town in an attempt to persuade Aweys to negotiate with the
government. However, the elders indicate that their efforts were
unsuccessful<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>ISIS strengthened with jailbreak.</b><br />
<br />
July, 2013- The new joint Syrian-Iraqi al-Qaeda offshoot, known as the Islamic State
of Iraq and al Shams (ISIS), gains a major coup when it breaks nearly
500 fellow militants from Abu Ghraib jail in Baghdad. That ISIS can
break its way into what is supposedly the most secure jail in the
country shows how well-organised it has become. Many escapees rejoin
ISIS's ranks. <br />
<br />
<br />
2013- July Ahrar Al Sham (ISIS)<b> </b>now numbers about 15,000, the largest Jihadist umbrella group in Iraq.<b> </b>Some Ahrar al-Sham units that have been involved in heavy fighting
include the Qawafel al-Shuhada and Ansar al-Haqq Brigades (both in Khan
Sheikhoun, Idleb Province), the al-Tawhid wal-Iman Brigade (Maarrat
al-Noum an, Idleb Province), the Shahba Brigade (Aleppo City), the
Hassane bin Thabet Brigade (Darat Ezza, Aleppo Province), and the
Salahaddin and Abul-Fida Brigades (both in Hama City) (Wikipedia)<br />
<br />
December, 2013- Human Rights Watch issues a report criticising the Iraqi government over
the scale of its use of the death penalty, often in cases where
confessions have been extracted by torture. A disproportionate number of
those on death row appear to be Sunni insurgents. <br />
<br />
Jan. 2014- ISIS sends gunmen into the cities of Fallujah and Ramadi, west of
Baghdad. The Iraqi army surrounds both cities but does not go for an
all-out assault for fear of large civilian casualties that would
alienate locals still further. Five months later, both cities remain
outside of Iraqi security forces' control.<br />
<br />
<br />
Winter/spring 2014<b>:</b> ISIS/ISIL battles al-Nusra and other rebel
groups for control of territory across northern Syria. Thousands die in
this conflict within the wider Syrian civil war. The State Department
says the group likely makes up “a significant portion of the estimated
26,000 violent extremist fighters in Syria. <br />
<br />
June 5, 2014,<b> </b>ISIS/ISIL forces launch an attack against the Iraqi city of Samarra, but are expelled by Iraqi airstrikes.<br />
<br />
Jun. 9-10, 2014<b> </b>ISIS/ISIL forces capture control of most of Mosul,
Iraq’s second-largest city, and free hundreds of prisoners, including
some of its fighters. Iraqi forces reportedly flee. Prime Minister
Nouri al-Maliki declares a state of emergency.<br />
<br />
<br />
June 11, 2014- ISIS/ISIL forces take control of an oil refinery at
Baiji then move further down the highway to Baghdad and seize Tikrit,
just 95 miles north of the capital. Hundreds of thousands of people are
reported to have been displaced as a result of the fighting.<br />
<br />
June, 2014- ISIS takes over the cities of Mosul and Tikrit, also threatening
Baghdad. Five years from being all but vanquished, al-Qaeda's writ in
Iraq is as strong, if not stronger, as it was before. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<i>thanks to BBC Timelines and: </i><br />
<i>http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/timeline-al-qaeda-linked-terrorists-move-closer-establishing-islamic </i><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23283079 </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Wikipedia, </span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf">http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.understandingwar.org/">http://www.understandingwar.org/</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/04/al-qaeda-jabhat-al-nusra-merge.html</span></div>
<br />
<i> http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/10895006/Timeline-How-al-Qaeda-regained-its-hold-in-Iraq.html </i><br />
<i> -http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/05/02/f-al-qaeda-timeline.html</i><br />
<i><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">- Infoplease.com</a> <a href="http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu" style="color: #003399;">http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html#ixzz2Rg9JhBiu</a> </i><br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-81361452927394587402013-12-05T16:20:00.001-08:002013-12-05T16:23:00.132-08:00Nelson Mandela Dies<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS:</span><br />
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<span style="font-weight: bold;">DEDICATED TO THE ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AROUND THE WORLD.</span><br />
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" 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<i><b>HISTORY IN THE NEWS, moribund, almost dead, makes its very last cry for Nelson Mandela, in honour of his life and in honour of his memory.</b></i><br />
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<span style="font-weight: bold;">TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF NELSON MANDELA.</span><br />
<br />
<i>With thanks to:</i><br />
<i>- http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7500615.stm</i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><i><br /></i></span><br />
<i>-http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/timeline</i><br />
<i>-http://www.nelsonmandelas.com/nelson-mandela-timeline.php</i><br />
<i>-http://www.cnn.com/2012/12/11/world/africa/nelson-mandela---fast-facts</i><br />
<br />
<b>Youth</b><br />
<b>18 July 1918-</b>Rolihlahla Mandela is born in a small South African village called Mvezo.
<br />
<b>1925</b>-
Mandela becomes the first person in his family to go to school. A
teacher gives him the name Nelson after having difficulty pronouncing
his real name.<br />
<b>1927- </b>(circa) Entrusted to Thembu Regent Jongintaba Dalindyebo<br />
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<img class="rg_i" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRhfr9LH_iMHmYqCYVh1rH_qinx2zoPoIu54IhImIWY7irNwdvzMsofLgQL" style="height: 93px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; width: 70px;" /> <br />
<b>Education.</b> <br />
<b>1934- </b>Undergoes initiation; Attends Clarkebury Boarding Institute in Engcobo<b> </b> <br />
<b>1937 - </b>Having passed his Junior Certificate in two years at Clarkebury Boarding
Institute Mandela joins Healdtown, a college in Fort Beaufort.<b>1939- </b>Enrolls at the University College of Fort Hare, in Alice but is expelled in 1940.<br />
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<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="mAvzeD1VUmcFQM:" 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aAcS4WSYaIVCyVQDpCrmFIRQIVEAaDgwmIODAHEdPLRyYJU3ygKTyw0kWIBigTVuYuXK+lOcUpWcBOcmtIGUtkkOpmJbCDvfhF/peV1RKXKkrRIWqYrBiStSZabBgtQSS+dsIIYRllFPSk9YEpOYDbtueW0ar2i/GmWumTOSEIlowrSAcSicWHMWSA72LktlrBxP0VOmzFzFIONCyiYh5owEE4SFggqSpGFQVrc5NZ7oXR7VK1LIU0vEgFa5nRutKSkFRJuD6jE5VJCwhWN1qQLoKgrC9gVJ1a3Ng53wvhEpCkYUuSHWSVLXqS6lObXtq1QFcq5Ic+qJfRsu2PUpiBaw3tZ+FrREaSmjE4g0jTAkSUrONSMZlzEuCULYrQpD5JUnGCkntSyQzkQFkUn7I5KYQ0XXyqhIMpYUcynJY4oN/Zvh6JT/AHvAJlIgpRCuCAaATIBghEKrRBFS2gCKyjVKbsJ9EeUZWoZxqlN2E+iPKA85840xtJ1f6z+RMRXJI9cDb0g8FKh7znBR0nVhP6TPYMCXYazENyaRhnBBJYKIe4zY6oC6SxeF0qhkqYxtC8ubbPvgHId4UCRCCJznOFCqAcIMLhcNUGFRALwdJgicoEGAWTAzhaCJygxgKnyqQMCnjM5kovYGLly1nFc9UsFwgJcfO7R7+smK6mRc8W74BjLolHWB6/siW0Pp+ZI+AmWlrIsbgX8GJZ4XkSAPZCOkKETQHLNkfvnAX/QNWAnCEoSxJOJaUpDseykPt4vqh1WVBJfEFDYAWbc5JEUfklSzyrCJa56QEkYUqJAL2s+RGRi6z5q5cyXInp6AKAKiQgFEtSsIXMSFYtRsQDYwDWh0bMqZmCWkrU5xbAH+Mr4o3+DlhFk5YcnU0uiigMpXSIWtbM6y4cbAAcIGzeTF40RoeXTSxLlJYZk61H5SjrP3EQfOSl6CZ6Uv6YHkTAYglPVcWIyubbxs1xN0fLCrQnCJoUDljQhZH7Sg/iYhpKWs5gFJb2QFgp+XFUD1uhWBmCnC+90tFg0fy2kr/OpVJV/3EeKRiHenvjPZS38oV3wGsSKhEwOhSVgfJUC3EC474MRGW0dSqWoKQopVtB+9o06jn9LLQsfGSD3kX9biACaBGoU3YT6I8ozFSM406m7CfRHlAeb+cb/1Sr/WfyJiuaJn4andif8A/Me0RPc5M1tKVf6z+REVelV8K43eOFQgLrUzcK1DfCsuaDDTSJdT7b+P+8BIUw1wEkmcB3w4lzREWheULCZl5QEvLVCyDEUieWu27dqv6ofSplnOcA8SrdntjkreEJa9pELyQ7nwgFUKhlpbTsunlKmK62HJLgFRJYDdc3OoPnERyn04KdIzc2SBwueAt4xntXWTJqsSySHsPI7zASH4aVzpi1AAzFKX1XbrF7OXbVBlywG3X7zb3wzQhgGzGXdmO8QtLm4iN2e/WPZAOSXtlt3D35eMKEff/aEZS87M58dl8stUGWN0BoPMvUAz5kv5cpxxQtPsUrwh+vBU6bUmY6pRIwi2BZkyykBW1OMLtr4ExSeb/Sv4NVY3ZkTwHyfoVlP8QTDzRdUqRME/EQtGBeE2frZa3BBSHt2zsuG5SU4Rh2ZcNQ7su4RWOctX9wV+slD+I/ZFjpKpE5CJqC6VDEk7iMj7RtG6K5zlp/J690yWf4wPbAY2pJBOyCrS/s4waYbwXf8AccdQgGeS2+UPWIdpUCLZZ92cITZeJSSLMXcvfVlCmEISBxHgIAwLD1+2NL5NVsuZISmW4MtICgWcHWrgVPfu2Pl2PEW1AX9wiY5KT1fhckIPxilTa0scY8A/cIDSJgjSqfsJ4DyjNVRpVP2E8B5QHmHnMX+Vqz9b/pois0yvhA+sJ+kffFm5yEPpes/W/wCmiK0qT1x6J9REBdZwxBPop8oTlJbVBpBdEvehP2+2HKEbIAqPvr2w6Sgi/hCODzh8gdXugEEylO8Ppc0sNZ4QEkQvOqZcoAzFoQDkVqSlzufPugOSs2sHfZ3wjpfT8qlljpCCojqoF1Kvs1B/jGw35RBaS5xZKC0lBmkHMkITxHxleAijVVQqdMK5iiVqLkny3AZADVAOK6vXUTDMmF3yF8KRqSnYPWczBUI2eEJpTB1L2QC0ycG1jeBkfZCVCt5ihtS9si2zdcGEZiy72I329evvhKnnDpCoBsLE8Mleq/dATicoKtcAw1Hhv2QkVwDinAxAHJxE1JUnHYFRCCzJK8XVY2JLMCq9gDsYGINC2ILPx4Efb3RLdKcSUgYbMkqUFYcPW+KDlhNmzU9oDTeajTGOTMknJBC0ZZKssDcFh/8AqRN84ErFo6fuCFfuzEGM85ua8y62SkkDpErlkMxuCpJN7nEgahnr1ahyikdJR1CNZlL8QkkesCAwOYb+MFCffATVX7oM9+6AFJAN4Y6QndZKRnh+kT7APGHRlh33mIupcTutruwOSWYYmyJtbMPeAcIJbCkNqJfLdvVD+inqlqStBwqSXBDuDx25wzSsDgIVlzXT9/vtgNX0RpP8IkImkAFQIU1hiSSkkDUCztqeNTp+wngPKMJ5C6d/9sshlYjLOxVyUHaCxI38bbtT9lPAeUB5p5xkflarP/M/kRFYmDrI34gP3QfMGLTzjj8q1f6z+REVgp60v0h60qgLZQj4KUfm/wAyodo1Q3oU/Ay92IfxGHKRAclF+MPUZcA54bTs4w2mLSkFSiyUgkk5ACK1ytnlUxMlZUCADMlWAQ90BbXMxiCpOSXCcwpge6V5dypQKZPwq8nY9GN75r4C2+KRpHSS6iYZk1RUo9wA1JSNQGyHVfoYtiljiHL8Q/lEWlL7YAyQfvnDhMy1r7obhDd2UHxXca4BQ1G/7+yCOcwo+I98JzZgfKCoBVZKXJyADnwgFJk9hm58fsgdHq6xfWLwI0RPP+TNP/TX7oc0ugKrEGp55P6qZ7oBzSzuq2tPVPdkfCDhXWiZ0Vzb101JmCWmXcjDNV0ayzHEEkZXa+d4VVzdaQSQegCt6Zsgj6cBEibcEWPvBBiQlrON1KIKhdIsQXBYAhVg+xwXFof0vNjXzCxRLljauagt+ygqJ7hBtCaPAWpU5KkgJdT4sXRuyAyi7zC2zMBoAdDUsxC5c4A/BzErSpyAUpUlWG9r9fbmN8ato/lzImlKFhUsqOHrFCkh7B1g6+EUmpny0YFLSVzZg6kpIKuiRdiRq3ks59RgFTB+aAvsIgKZWyTLmqlnNCig8UkpPlBcV4d6b0ZO6dSpctc0qLkByXa77fbEbKoag3/B5w3dHMf6MANRUYUk62txiBM1iNxDnbEnV6OnnOROA/VzPdETPkqHaBHEN5wErMX1b5a/C0KYiyRuv4QxkqOEBQNs94GUPELSDm7wD2nmmWykEhQIUDrBBcHxj1NRKeWgnMpST3gR5SE5JBY6jt90eq9G/mZfoJ+iIDzLzoaUwaVq0hLnpNeXYTFNnaSmFrsxcMGYjfnFl51UE6YrGBPwur0ExUzKLEkM20gHwNz3QEhJ03UAACdMA1B4cy9PVA/zl/w+0REyoOp2tAXfkVyilqqv75MUtEpC5ssEIwmbKTjSFjD1gyVMPlBJvCGhJWNSp804pk5RWSWN1EqL+MUlJZScQJDgkbnvFo0XWIRPCEE4VgFIIIwu7hj3HvgLLV4Azi5uNYI3bxke7bFF0vICJqgLJN06s/teLvU6IlrKZqFzEKTmkGXMQXDH4NRlqD27JXllDrQ2iaKpmJ6U068KWSkKmSlqU47UtSUEsAdrvAZaZghzS6NnTW6KTMXvCFEeIDRu1Pycp5f5uTKQdyEhXizwtMp7XvugMj0Tzcz5i0mo+Clv1mKVLbYlIsDxNt+UaZoTRVNSpwyUFFrqYFauK3c8Mtgh10OwQoimOyAeorEj4x8PthVFTL2l/RMIyactl64OEDdAOBUo+4MKyqpAFzbgqGZDff2e+E1Lf7/doCSVpQIuOseDMPC590V6oopalPgSRdgoEsWR0d3chGEsN8O5igBcgcSBDczkOBiF8sz5AvwzgEpVAhPWAaYoDpF3dShmq+T7MgABB6fRvXfrqVm6irCOADB9Vh9sXpDlvT0xDico3AAllHZLH84yvANfPNoObz3ISfg6QneuZ7EiA0am0YxDBzt1+MBVV0mUWmzkIOwm/gHjIdOc7dRUoCUpElIPWTLKgVvk6ndhsDZxBTK9U2QqaMRWlaUsGYJIJxGxJJIZ3s2t7B6CklK0hctQWlWSklwdWY3wC5D53G+8ZXyL5xl0VOJU2nM5ONSgoTMCkgs4YoIN3OY7UWyl54qJVlyqiX+yiYP4Vv6oCcqeTsiZ25EpXGWh/FniNn83tGrKUZfoLWPUSR6ofUfOBo2ZlVoSdkxMyX61pA9cTtJUyZo+CnSpnoTEL+iTAZ/W810ojqTpiDqxBK/LDG1UacMtAd2SkeAEZZyz5VCTikSCDPYhZzEkNr2r3ateyNToPzUt79RPkIDyrzprI0zWEFj0jeKEj2xUSmNg5caGopWkqmorJnSFUzEmSlwOykdcjrKO5LDaTlGWaXrROnLmJQiWlSiQhAASkZAAC2QD7S5gG6LQdarWhNJgzQDd4cJqHAStyE9nrMU8M7QmUh4KuAn9EImLQ4mykpBYhdTgUGa/RlYJF/ijbErpPkdUTkJMroZuEW6IzFKI3kuLcYpkvKDBtkBaqXTuk6IJQozpUtDsiZLCpesthWkpufN4nKPnemyiBUUsiaFAKxIxSlEG+YxJ9UUmk0/USg0ufOQNiZsxI8ApofS+WtWAxmlY2TEypv8A5EKgNFXzuUSSyqepQWBLLlTBcAi5UHsRa0PKXnMol9lNQo7BKST6phjKKjlCV2mU9MraehTLPjJwRGqnOolKQgfJuR/ESfXAbzL5WlYPQ0NWvW60Ikp7itfW7odp0goh1dIknUKRRw7RiFQH1XYZRi2jeUE6U2Ba07WUoB76sTH72jTNEcsZCJSDU9PMxJScSUSkgKJW4BsVAAJDkZhV2YQE6vSjByhbbRSTvIT7wl+OpPxjPSD8mhW/8cxflDccutG/Knjij3LaF5PLHR6sp00aryph+i8AiNIUKVP0tYku/wDhJIvqN5We+HtZyqkCV0b1S0LBClqpypSr5DCUptuD+cOpOnaM9mrA9JFQnzRAL0pSa62nHFbeYBgKTpTRxr5yCsLRTy0lIUpIQtZxXwpV1usEy7mwCYYaZ0lQ0nVFNLVxQlT8SQ7xoMudSLP+MpVDZ00m/iqGHKjkjKqqciUuSpWdlyC7XPWxEvwgM6UZE+T0wppUtJLOENcFmta9ok9DkIkzZaZKimaEjEEjNCgeqoECz3z4RWdIVMuRLlSwslBVMMwJUxthsSLi+vdE0vSplSAETgtDzWfolscMsgB3+a+uAPWcm5VQkMTLWmwmjjkoBn7rxG13IOdKUU/hMpRHykr88J84Ch5Uk1MkTFJKQtPZAThOIMervYxsyOTkiQVTJqgSk9Zcwvh3ObA8AVbIDGZXICuVhaQlYVlhmJD78Mwg+UQs+jShZQtkrSSCDZiLEYhY9xjUuVPLTEFS6d0Sy4UrJaxxzQndmddrRnE+lJf7ICS0eGQS7u93f1x6e0f+al+gn6IjyXL0OWJCim2q3lHrPRo+Bl+gn6IgPL/OhLT+N6wn9L/IiKZOAe0W3nUP5XrP1v8AIiKksQBQY7FDrR2i5k+amVKSVLWWSPaTqADknUAYvknmTnHtVEocEzFebQGcvBY1aRzH/Lqj+zKHtXD6VzHSNdROPBMse+Ax/oyA+qCiNwlcy9H8ZdQr9tA8kRIU3NNo5OclSvSmzP5SBAYEIPj3x6KRzd6PGVHK78Z81GHcnkZRJypKcf8ASlnzEB5oUsbY5CXyc8Lx6nkaCkI7MiSnhKljyEP6emAyAHAAQHlaVKUntApfLEkh+D5w5mTiUgEm2QjTOfA4qmmQX6klSu9cwjyRGbGnMAnKR93h0ioa3+0ETTHUPOFpdHtLbjb1QDyRV6mPjD+XUEjM+MRaZQFyYeSSWtAS9MlKu0lJ7oCq0XJUPzSP3QIa00zfDvpS3+8BQ9M6DMpRw5Zga23bW18RDnRNAudTYJcta1JmqPVSSwMtOZyHZif0oHzDjZqhxoCZMlS1GXjSnEHwlLOQRcKB1QFNnaEnypiSqWUuQpLt8qxsdoi/6a0zOnrJmzVTLkh2YOz4Uiye6IWfSEqfrZvdRP2Q4KDvgElI3mDIkQYjd6oWkEnVABhZJj0no/8ANS/QT9ER51KbHhHoug/NS/QT9EQGJct+Zuuq6+oqJXQ4Ji8ScUwgthSLjCWyMQg5gtJf/X/7qvqR0dAXvm/5p5lElUyd0Znr6rpUSEIfIFrlRYk7gIuadAL+b4n3R0dAG/ES/m+J90G/Eq/m+J90dHQHfiNe0eJ90HToVW7xPugI6AU/FCt3j9kGRotW71+6OjoBX8XndB0UJGyOjoDPOX3NpVV1YZ0tUkIEtCEhalg9XETYIIzVtiApeZSsSXJplbjMm+yXAx0AtO5mqxWRpk8Jk3+nCf8AYtWfpKf9+Z/Tjo6AFPMtV/pKf9+Z/Tg6OZirH+ZT/vTP6cdHQDqTzQ1Q/wAyn/emf04c/wBldT+kkfvTP6cdHQDeo5oalX+ZI/emf04Xo+aqqRLUjpZDEg2VM1fsQMdAJnmlqXfpZH70z6kcrmkqP0kjxmfUgY6ATVzQ1P6WR+9M+pCg5pKj9JI/emfUjo6A480lR+lk+Mz6kapTSsKEpOpIHgGgI6A//9k=" style="height: 207px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -6px; width: 195px;" /><br />
<b>Walter Sisulu.</b><br />
<b>1941</b>
Mandela flees to Johannesburg, to avoid an arranged marriage. There he meets Walter Sisulu and begins work at his law firm.<br />
<b>1941-1943- </b>Sisulu becomes a mentor and lifelong friend.
Sisulu introduces Mandela to the law firm Witkin,
Sidelsky and Eidelman, where he obtains a position. Mandela earns his B.A. degree, enrolls in law school and
joins the ANC.<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQH8PJuYpgN1E17g6id0_895q1nRDnqYsyOk4DzY7JeD5FYzdXCtg" data-sz="f" name="PnRWRMl8C2SrKM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQH8PJuYpgN1E17g6id0_895q1nRDnqYsyOk4DzY7JeD5FYzdXCtg" style="height: 188px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 117px;" /> <br />
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<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td width="5"><br /></td><td bgcolor="#cccccc" width="1"><br /></td><td width="5"></td><td valign="top"></td></tr>
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<b>1942- </b>Completes BA through the University of South Africa (UNISA)<br />
<br />
<b>The African National Congress. </b><br />
<b>1942- </b>Begins to attend African National Congress (ANC) meetings informally.<br />
<b>1943- </b>Graduates with BA from Fort Hare; Enrols for an LLB at Wits University. <br />
<b>1944 </b>Two years after joining the African National Congress (ANC), Mandela and 60 other young members form the ANC Youth League. He marries Evelyn Ntoko Mase – they have four children: Thembekile (1945);
Makaziwe (1947 – who die. s after nine months); Makgatho (1950); Makaziwe
(1954)<br />
<b>1948 </b>Mandela Elected national secretary of the ANCYL. The ANC The National Party comes to power on the policy of apartheid. The ANC
launch a campaign of passive resistance against the laws. They later
begin the Campaign for the Defence of Unjust Laws.<br />
<b>1951- </b>Elected President of the ANCYL.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="uIv_gFUOaEd7QM:" 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" style="height: 182px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -1px; width: 251px;" /> <br />
<b>The Defiance Campaign.</b> <br />
<br />
<b>195</b><b>2- </b>Defiance Campaign begins; Arrested and charged for violating the
Suppression of Communism Act; Elected Transvaal ANC President; Convicted
with J.S Moroka, Walter Sisulu and 17 others under the Suppression of
Communism Act; Sentenced to nine months imprisonment with hard labour,
suspended for two years; Elected first of ANC deputy presidents.<b> </b><br />
<b><b>1952- </b></b>Dec.- Mandela and Oliver Tambo open a law office in downtown Johannesburg and take on
a heavy load of cases involving blacks persecuted under the new apartheid
laws. Mandela and Tambo provide legal services to those who would have normally had no
representation. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>1953 </b>The ANC is concerned that it will be banned so Mandela is tasked with ensuring the party can work underground.<br />
<b>1955</b>- Mandela watches as the Congress of the People at Kliptown launches the Freedom Charter.<br />
<br />
<b>Mandela Charged with Treason.</b> <br />
<b>1956 </b>Along with 155 others, Mandela is arrested and charged with treason. After a four-year trial, the charges are dropped.<br />
<b>1958- </b> Divorces Evelyn Mase; Marries Nomzamo Winnie Madikizela – they have two daughters: Zenani (1959) and Zindzi (1960)<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTjaBl9E0Q_V7NA6TfFXGdUDa8aWkpZqOTzOJsunvwLTIhywYg3" data-sz="f" name="qQ3gXCrB11u1yM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTjaBl9E0Q_V7NA6TfFXGdUDa8aWkpZqOTzOJsunvwLTIhywYg3" style="height: 172px; margin-left: -6px; margin-right: -6px; margin-top: 0px; width: 293px;" /><br />
<br />
<b>The Sharpeville Massacre. The Repressive Regime of Frensch Verwoerd.</b> <br />
<b>1958- Sept- </b>Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd becomes prime minister and strictly enforces apartheid
policies. As former minister of native affairs, Verwoerd had been responsible
for much of the apartheid legislation. <br />
<br />
<b>21 March 1960- </b>Police kill 69 people, including women and children, as black people
protest in Sharpeville against restrictions on their freedom of
movement. A state of emergency is declared, amid fears of retaliation,
and the ANC is banned.<br />
<b>1959-April-</b> former ANC Youth League member, Robert Sobukwe, launches the Pan Africanist
Congress (PAC), a new political group that opposes including whites and
Indians in the anti-apartheid struggle. <b> </b><br />
<b>1960- March 30- </b>A State of Emergency imposed and Mandela is among thousands detained.<br />
<br />
<b>ANC Driven Underground; Madela Arrested.</b> <br />
<b>1960- April 8- </b>The ANC is banned <br />
<b>1961</b>- The ANC concludes that peaceful protest is not enough to combat
apartheid and forms an underground military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe
(Spear of the Nation). Mandela, now vice-president of the ANC, is
appointed as the group's first leader.<br />
<b>1962- </b>Having spent a year underground, on August 5, Mandela is arrested near Howick in KwaZulu-Natal for incitement and leaving the country without a passport. He is sentenced to five years in jail on Robben Island.
<br />
<br />
<div class="audioInStoryC">
</div>
<b>1963- </b>While Mandela is in prison, fellow ANC members are arrested. They are
charged with sabotage and treason, along with Mandela. The men appear in
court in Rivonia.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="kbfH1mluQ1V9WM:" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,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" style="height: 168px; margin-left: -18px; margin-right: -17px; margin-top: 0px; width: 300px;" /><br />
<br />
<b>Mandela Sentenced to Life on Robben Island.</b> <b> </b><br />
<b>1964- June 12- </b>At the end of the eight-month trial, Mandela and seven other defendants (with the exception of Rusty Bernstein and James Kantor)
are given life sentences and taken to prison on Robben Island.<br />
<b>1968-1969- </b>within<b> </b>a one-year period, Mandela's mother dies and his oldest son is killed in
a car crash. Mandela is not allowed to attend the funerals. <br />
<b>1976- </b>Soweto<b> </b>students protest mandatory instruction in Afrikaans, the
language of the white rulers. Protests spread throughout Soweto. In crushing
it, the government kills 575 people over an eight month period, a fourth of
them under age 18.<br />
<b>1977- </b> Winnie is banished to Brandfort, a remote township. Her daughter Zindzi goes
with her. Over the following years, Winnie will spend over a year in jail (including solitary
confinement) and face constant police harassment and humiliation. In
response, she becomes more aggressive and militant in opposing white rule.<br />
<b>1978</b>-Vorster resigns; P.W. Botha, who held various political appointments in the
National Party, takes over as prime minister.<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQLfN6CSsgky6RVkCQe3dDCbgQfJrj7sARRF0-q-Y1OXs_L9q5RfQ" data-sz="f" name="u8lFtqSufEYnlM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQLfN6CSsgky6RVkCQe3dDCbgQfJrj7sARRF0-q-Y1OXs_L9q5RfQ" style="height: 165px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 115px;" /><br />
<b>The 'Release Mandela Campaign.'</b> <br />
<b>1980- </b>In exile, Oliver Tambo and the ANC launch the "Release Mandela" campaign.
In the following years, numerous countries and international groups sign
petitions, pass resolutions and hold rallies for Mandela's release. <br />
<b>1982- March 31- </b>Mr Mandela, Sisulu, Raymond Mhlaba and Andrew Mlangeni and later Ahmed Kathrada are sent to Pollsmoor Prison.<br />
<b>1983-1984-</b> Angered by rent increases and Botha's plan for giving Indian and mixed-race
voters--but not blacks--token places in Parliament, black residents of
townships south of Johannesburg start an insurrection that spreads across the
country. The police respond brutally. In one township, Langa, 20 people are
fatally shot at a funeral procession.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="gq00cwk6mFAmtM:" 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HyPCXF8NGhlt/oF5bbGfgbbWo/kZVc0f6ZMtPMAjyXox/eCkeFmSjlcUb7QiAoVOoDBGIOSkSsUTsMEyiHJ0hnPXVNgScFKmokg9ILT2XWweBvg+qzArGxa0PeP8nz/lZZ3eM9GxYbK55MviVep2ANJDRhGJ36/FZ1jtGOcELYbWgHXDFRZ6MnaoLXb4T+4YeSK17WAz5a6J3NvCPvVUbdUAJmMM510HH0SRiitbbUTi4kfpb+kfqPFeTbYtne13v3FxjkPCPgAu57QbTuUnuJ8TgQ3mcB5SSvPe7Xf40aTkcXlTuojMGK6jYhhc5QpSV0+yqBAW8z0LBSts3mOwRWhBYEdq88S7HIUHNRgEz4GaaT9F00uym9irVGq7Uqt1VN9pZxPw65K8ccvobywS7A2qpLC04g79CgWjYlKqG3T3bi2TpO89dFO1bQbBAHWTKtdxeo03sMGC0xGYJGRWmnApiyRyOqszqXZJrXTVeCBoSSeGK6KxNYBcpNDW5HUDQnVYVNtUmHTHC63zXQ2GwGABAHBTyydU2dceC+EaIbVow5tRgyEHkg0rQS7otq2OAp6rnDWuvJ3AAeeKgtoOi7X+SzxRvOx5lWH1RE6otkb8U/ijSVsNToxj9wrtgpFz2saC57iA1ozJPoots7nkU6YL3vMNaMTlu+uS9I7Mdlm2QF7ofXdm4e7TbvYz5u38gqYsMsr/AIQ8ryY4Fvss7K2S2zUbmb3eKq4fmdEQOAGA5HVeB+0a0g7Rr3TgHNaf3BoBX0Bta1BjHPOTWknkB/C+Y9o201aj6hze9zzh+oz6QvVceKSR8/FucnJmlsPat0XH5bjpOfRdCuFpugrbsNuIaM+cx5qUoX0VOgCSoi3H7hJZ/GxFNxUqSESi0QuVmaLdMJ9hvFSrVDMblPF26XOAAHx8lj7et5a2433nZxnG4dV31HZzLLZG2dsX2OPfkZurloL54Nm4P2nUpuNQtnT46fI51toLXLRo26Yk4TiqVezHSUm0SBlCg9nqp6N87Wa0TKx9sbca1pe4YAb8yd39kqVHqpM7PfjHPoEhn9IuvZhrrwuT/wBJmNyeOCckiOXJUW0cPb7Q6u68TIzaNw/lA/CYLVq7EqWSq6hXiYvsLSHMe0mLzDoYPkmdC7ncXSOaEYzjyZWsFkxXS2akAFjWaoAVsUq2EqORNkZ6dIsVK7WlodMuMAD5pVNoAZAdVjPeTWBmS1pPInAKd/ef7qyxRRK2XqtuMSTyGXUqq+0kyXEgDPnuAVR9UkxPXdzPBBq1pwGQ+5KolQiw61lxjoAh1Km7j5n6KLWRzPwH8ob3x0+4QMHWqxj5BaHZ7agaDTqZEkg88x8+qwnvLir1lpRzzPyCU4KSpm8c3CXJG66sGOykbiCMuKt2bbwadJxmd65q3VAGmMPqm2TSdUpuqFpLWPaxz8wHPBLZ0kNd5Lmlh0d2PyuTo6m3bYDmwDJOQ+ZWXVMnE4DM6nRSsliF+eo8k1usZAnHEwNSTuAUVV0jpdvYjag7AZLpOzOxatrcRRHhGDqjp7tp57zwCn2O9l76xFW2SynmKIkPeP8AmH8g4DHkvYbHYmUmNYxrWMaIa1oAaBwAXVHxuTuRw5fOUFxhtmfsLs7SsrfD4nkeKoR4ncB+lvDzlaLnKb1gdrO0tOw2Z9apjGDGTjUefdYPUncASu2MVBUjyJSlklcnbOT9rfaltGh+GaQatYGRPuUsi46TkOq8Zc7gEW17Sfaar61Yl1So6ScgIwAGjRkANEKBosN2zpjHiqE2NFZpDE54NnRQpNHH4KTT70T7oGPE/wAJGggqHU/D6J0O8kgC+CiGuGNLjkB58EFpVfa1WGAan0yXGo2waBbDtYq2+zOqCW/iaJcNWio3DykL0i07Oq0K9bvZfTq1qlSlV/K8VHl8TucL2Lc+kLyaw1TRqU6m9rmvA/a6R5r2jYXaEVaV5pvMdg5pgjDC69pV8mPnGjWPK8T5dmZ+HB3dfvNSFmzwnitv8NQducwncx/hHR4PqrdXbFis7J7lpIAlz3XjOuIieS5V40vbOqXlxrRytnsb3AljJaMTUcQ2k2N5qO8I854KlV7Z2WxGpdD7ZUfF4yaNnaAIuhxmpUGZyaDKp9s/ambQ00qdOmGakSehOXSF55UrFxkmSujHiUdnPPK5qujZte3HWm0OquAb4Yaxs3WMHusbJJgTvO8qDqhVHZw8R/afUK654XQkiSk0qE1xC1bDajB4YdSsc1FastbwO5t+aJJUJMtWUy955SfvVSqVvjhHog0HQXDUtJ8vqivwEnMjDgNYUzQKs7d5/RNSbrkPjoFBoJIjMqT3btwy48UwJGoSeJ+/JVrU7yGXHiiX4HE+iGROeQz+idACs9Pf5K2LSQIw8gT6KLcND0UXvA3R1TABbq5dpHIfReg+xyjTdZbeKwb3c0+8ve7dDXkk6DfOeC86tbYw5q9s7bBp7PtdJpjvq1mDuLGtquI5EgJoxL+BLZt1jKru4vuptce7LovFu4uXrnYHYN+jStLy15qND2QMGA7hP5hiCc8CvCjlzz49V697EO0wE2GocDNSzE651aXM++B+5YjjinZXJOcoaZ6zZ6AARpTkQoOcuijzwFprBoJJgASScAAMyeC+cPaJ2yNvtJuk9xSJbRGu41SNXbtBAXoftm7X91R/CU3f1KwmrGbKW5p0L9NAdV4tQpy5Yk/R04oUrZYZTAGaK1g1Pkhhh+4Uww6jzHyWCoZsan76pmkD4eqg0DUfE/JM+JGPPCEAWQkhd5x+CSAL7VR20YAOgMHqr7QqW3aM02u/S71XLD5FZLRl26mMHD8wx5iJ9QrWxu0NWzOlhwPvNOLXRqFTFYx8ch9OSbvjquoidz/8ktuY0SHa3gW9AcVyO19v1LQ4lzjdOTcgOgWbUzSASoQyQTpJiLNiGJ5fNWTTKhspol3IepWnQsrqhhonicABxO5aQ6KHcK53YbRH6i+CemAHmtWz7Nptxe4POgkNGHxKqbZe17S1gDWjKMOPmst2aKlmP9Qyd2Y3gHEeSPXqTjvWbZK0uGuIK0d17yHHXkkwIOwEbzmdOCHny3pXkpjDzQgIudP38FJleDAzHzURr5c1SrAzIzH3imBqd8DmPJCqb+WH9kGkcj1go9XKeHpggCraRj97widm7MKtR1J0lry3LcRIB8yoVhh081qezyz37S4cGxqPGMQgRiUaeA9dDvCLZ7W6i9tRji17HBzXDNrmmWuHX5olrs4a54DnEBzhukgOMOiFa7L9n32ytcpguDAHOyymBPVLs29f4fR3Y7tM232OnaAIc4RVb+io2A8csiOBCo9tu1zbHReWw6oGzji2mDADnakkgBu/PIFD7EbHNGk5rSGuabrgRLT+lxGo/heZe2LtE11f8HSMtouvV3zJqVyMQ477o+JOgVW6RyxinI8+t9tfWqPqVHFz6ji5ziZJJ1O/+AnszYHE+iBEq4G4fBTOp/Q93eBuM8lEM4HyRjhh1dxP8fNQa/z6oMjhhUXtjeiNboD5FRNIxjhzIQBGAkoX+KSANtoVXbHuNGrvQfyrjWqjt0wKfM/JcmPci89IwmiEip1czzUV1nOCKaUnZpEoEJIJAJwEAXdlVSHGGd4SPdx1mcOq6KltcEXBT7p0e7HvRvGq5zY1QtrNIwzHm0rZtz7wyg7nHdG8BJjRPvySeh5YYyq9erPLdy+qp0a5lwyvD4gqbTjiihlZgioIyJjrqtJ756YDkPuVnT4wVcY2eW/kmA+Xy4cVGJw3qdR0qLsBxPp9UARqu3DIZceKixmEnenDfvVELMB1Hkf5QA13AdUnuwHX6pzl1+SYYt6hAAqnu8ifRaPYq2iiLVV/M2jDP9R7wxvxM9FnuGDuU+X2VT2fN4QdSRuMZT5oCr7LzwTMbzjx4HgvSPYXQH4m0CMqDCOE1IhecAEDCI3nTgvTPYUz+vanAYNpUhxN57jP/aEQ7N5fg7/4d52128NmWWpXEGo8d3SbrVOLTybBPRfNFWoXEucSXEkucc3EmSTzJJ6rtfav2wFutl2mZoWeWU9HOn+pU6kADg0ariYTk7ZnFDjHZKg3xcvVXDgJ3nLgNUOy08JPM/wpvdPVIHsgJnmimpdwGY34Z8FHIcT6KLKcmPNAhqtc7z1JVR1oJ90dT8kW0WcF07vvFTDIA6oAi2hhmkjXUkwN8tWRt78n+75JJLnxFchk1M1EpJK5EE5RSSQIdOUySALezh/Ubz+RVmnaSIGck5pJJGkAtNSHCN6JV9yePokkmICx2IWjRyPEx5JJIAmxsn74obsZKSSBic2I4kj0RCPD1PoE6SAERh/uHooMZgenqkkgCF30PoVV2fn/ALT6hJJA0Wy38u4/SZ5rpuzG1Kln2btF9I3Xu/C0r28Nqd6HXTuMSJ4pkkl2Vnuji4SISSQBoOENA4T8goMZJhJJMiJxxlOR4eZP9kkkACOiRGA6pJIAZJJJAH//2Q==" style="height: 196px; margin-left: -8px; margin-right: -4px; margin-top: 0px; width: 258px;" /> <br />
<b>Mandela Refuses a Deal with PW Botha.</b> <br />
<b>1985-</b> Rejects South African President PW Botha's offer to release him if he renounces violence.<br />
<b>1986- April- </b> Winnie's increasingly controversial and militant activities culminate in a
speech at a funeral in which she endorses "necklace murders'--the death by
burning tires around the necks of those who collaborate with the government. Her speech is
widely reported in the foreign press as a call to violence; it is privately
denounced by the ANC. <br />
<b>1988- Aug 12</b>- Admitted to Tygerberg Hospital and is diagnosed with Tuberculosis. In December he is moved to Victor Verster Prison in Paarl where he was held for 14 months in a cottage.<br />
<br />
<b><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="JJgogk1_6HyoGM:" 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" style="height: 191px; margin-left: -6px; margin-right: -6px; margin-top: 0px; width: 153px;" /> </b><br />
<br />
<b>FW deKlerk Becomes President, accepts Power Sharing. </b><br />
<b>1989- Aug- </b>Botha resigns and FW de Klerk <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/mandela/interviews/deklerk.html"></a> is sworn in as acting president.
Mandela is encouraged when de Klerk releases most of the Rivonia Trial prisoners,
including Sisulu, and begins to dismantle the apartheid structure. He abandons
the long-term master plan of congregating blacks into separate homelands, and
accepts the principle of "power sharing" with them. De Klerk recognizes that
apartheid is not working. Despite millions of arrests for violations of the
pass laws, blacks continue to migrate into banned areas. <br />
<b>1990- Feb 2</b>- ANC is unbanned<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="VzBsWHsfTSEMVM:" 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" 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<br />
<b>Mandela Freed from Prison; Elected President of the ANC.</b><br />
<b>11 February 1990- </b>Mandela is freed after 27 years, as a result of a relaxation of
apartheid laws and the lifting of the ban on the ANC. He is greeted by
large crowds as he and wife Winnie leave the prison grounds.<br />
<b>1990- March 2- </b>Elected ANC Deputy President <br />
<b>1991- </b>At the ANC's first national conference in South Africa, Mandela is elected president of the party.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcS_MyvBw7Pk4yDEgQhaSRCTRLo_SG4jbArefOLvIuKIZJAORazh" data-sz="f" name="Fs-dV3TmxVo7JM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcS_MyvBw7Pk4yDEgQhaSRCTRLo_SG4jbArefOLvIuKIZJAORazh" style="height: 127px; margin-left: -17px; margin-right: -18px; margin-top: 0px; width: 351px;" /> <br />
<br />
<b>Difficult Negotiations with deKlerk. ANC launches Mass Action.</b> <br />
<b>1991- Dec 20- </b>
The first formal negotiations with the government take place at the Convention
for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA 1). Mandela lashes out at de Klerk in a
speech, after de Klerk berated the ANC in an earlier speech. They don't meet
again for five months. <br />
<b>1992- June-Sept- </b>frustrated over the unsuccessful negotiations, the ANC decides on a policy of
"rolling mass action" consisting of strikes, protests and boycotts, to show the
government the support the ANC has across the country. Meanwhile, the violence
continues with an Inkatha raid on ANC members that leaves 46 dead in Boipatong
township.<br />
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<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="Uf8RmBJXBEtXeM:" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,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" style="height: 174px; margin-left: -2px; margin-right: -6px; margin-top: 0px; width: 290px;" /> <br />
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<b>Mandela and deKlerk: The Record of Understanding.</b> <br />
<b>1992- Sept- </b> increasing death toll forces Mandela and de Klerk to
restart negotiations. They sign the Record of Understanding, which promises to
establish formal investigations into the violence and police actions. It also
establishes an elected constitutional assembly that will develop a new
constitution for the country.<br />
<br />
<b>Mandela and deKlerk win Nobel peace Prize.</b> <br />
<br />
<b>1993-</b>Mandela, along with South African President FW De Klerk, is awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize for efforts to bring stability to South Africa. Accepting the award, Mandela says: "We will do what we can to contribute to the renewal of our world."<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTU3eAxFS4tUqeeJJ0m1fDks7vbHj5skZ_70pb555URJ7rCnQw9NA" data-sz="f" name="XuWdEGigD52lyM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTU3eAxFS4tUqeeJJ0m1fDks7vbHj5skZ_70pb555URJ7rCnQw9NA" style="height: 168px; margin-left: -6px; margin-right: -12px; margin-top: 0px; width: 299px;" /> <br />
<br />
<b>Mandela elected President of South Africa.</b> <br />
<b>27 April 1994-</b>South Africans, including Nelson Mandela (voting for the first time in his life) vote in the country's first democratic election. Mandela, leader of the ANC, is elected as the country's first black president.
<br />
<b>10 May 1994 </b>Nelson Mandela addresses the crowds at his inauguration, saying: "Let freedom reign, God bless Africa!" Thabo Mbeki, Mandela's deputy, takes over the day-to-day running
of government, leaving Mandela to promote the country around the world.<br />
<b>1994- Dec- </b>Launches his autobiography <i>Long Walk to Freedom</i><br />
<i></i><br />
<b>February 1995- </b>To mark the fifth anniversary of his release, Nelson Mandela visits Robben Island, the prison he was held in for 18 years.<br />
<b>1995</b>- Establishes the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund.<br />
<b>1996</b>- Divorces Winnie Mandela<br />
<b>1998- July 15- </b>Marries Graça Machel on his 80th birthday.<br />
<b>1999- </b>Steps down after one term as President, establishes the Nelson Mandela Foundation.<br />
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<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQnoF7I_9wNc5Ku-xFDWlntxxEKAsSX5qyJt31FXKJ_XVxFDnz9tQ" data-sz="f" name="1yjrSQeKoR-b9M:" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQnoF7I_9wNc5Ku-xFDWlntxxEKAsSX5qyJt31FXKJ_XVxFDnz9tQ" style="height: 242px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -7px; width: 205px;" /><br />
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<b>Mandela in Retirement.</b><br />
<b>1999- </b>Thabo Mbeki takes over from Mandela as president of South Africa and goes on to win the 1999 presidential election.<br />
<b>2000- </b>Mandela is appointed mediator civil war in Burundi. <br />
<b>2001-</b>Mandela is diagnosed with prostate cancer and begins a course of radiation.<br />
<b>2003- </b> Establishes the Mandela Rhodes Foundation<br />
<b>2003- </b> Supports 46664 AIDS fund raising campaign. (named after his prison number) <br />
<b>2004- </b>Announcing his retirement from public life, Mandela says he plans to enjoy a quieter life and spend more time with his family.<br />
<b>2005- Jan 6- </b>Announces that his eldest son Makgatho had died of AIDS<br />
Joking with reporters, he says: "The appeal therefore is - don't call me, I'll call you."<br />
<b>2007</b>- Witnesses the installation of his grandson Mandla as chief of the Mvezo Traditional Council<br />
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" style="height: 168px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 300px;" /> <br />
<br />
<b>Mandela Founds the Elders.</b> <br />
<b>2007- </b>Despite his retirement, Mandela forms The Elders. The group,
which includes Archbishop Desmond Tutu and other statesmen and women,
aims to help tackle the world's problems.
<br />
<b>2008- </b>Musicians, film stars and politicians join Mandela at a concert in London's Hyde Park to celebrate his 90th birthday. Speaking to the crowd he says "It is time for new hands to lift the burdens, it is in your hands now."
<br />
<b>2008- July 18-</b> Turns 90 years old, asks future generations to continue the fight for social justice<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSGVZPS-MGrpp7uHlLe8VpKsDjgpi9VBiouYhpS-3m2dj3cuFij" data-sz="f" name="kmQ30wpEgVYvpM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSGVZPS-MGrpp7uHlLe8VpKsDjgpi9VBiouYhpS-3m2dj3cuFij" style="height: 171px; margin-left: -11px; margin-right: -2px; margin-top: 0px; width: 295px;" /><br />
<br />
<b>Inauguration of Jacob Zuma.</b> <br />
<b>2009- </b> Votes for the fourth time in his life; Attends the inauguration of
President Jacob Zuma on May 9 and witnesses Zuma's first State of the
Nation address; Turns 91<br />
<b>2009</b>- The United Nations General Assembly declares July 18 'Mandela Day' as a tribute to his contribution to world freedom. <br />
<b>2010- </b>Is formally presented with the Fifa World Cup trophy before it embarks on a tour of South Africa.<br />
<b>2010- June 11</b>- His great-granddaughter Zenani is killed in a car accident<br />
<b>2010- July 11- </b>Makes a surprise appearance at the Final of the Fifa World Cup in Soweto.<br />
<b>2010- Oct-</b> His second book <i>Conversations with Myself</i> is published.<br />
<b>2010- Nov. 18 </b>- Meets the South African and American football teams that played in the Mandela Challenge match<br />
<b>2011- Jan- </b>Is admitted to hospital in Johannesburg where he was diagnosed with a chest infection. He is discharged after two nights.<br />
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<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="NwDl9bt0_uCWYM:" 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" style="height: 181px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 136px;" /> <br />
<br />
<b>'Nelson Mandela By Himself'</b> <br />
<b>2011- June-</b> His book <i>Nelson Mandela By Himself: The Authorised Book of Quotations</i> is published <br />
<b>2011- Jun 21-</b> Is visited at home by American First Lady Michelle Obama and her daughters Sasha and Malia. Dec 18-Is admitted to hospital <br />
<b>2012- Feb 5- </b>Admitted to hospital for abdominal complaint. Discharged after one night.<br />
<b>2012</b> - <b>March</b>- The Nelson Mandela Digital Archive Project
is launched. Google gives a $1.25 million grant to help preserve and
digitize thousands of archival documents including items donated by
Mandela himself. <br />
<br />
<b> </b><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTnrbZFe_2WFCRAd7YsmeM4Lx2J-G09jbUowMOGbMJXh7UsGfFH1A" data-sz="f" name="rYTv42zcF0c4_M:" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTnrbZFe_2WFCRAd7YsmeM4Lx2J-G09jbUowMOGbMJXh7UsGfFH1A" style="height: 164px; margin-left: -7px; margin-right: -6px; margin-top: 0px; width: 292px;" /><br />
<br />
<b>Mandela's Failing Health. </b><br />
<b>2013-</b> <b>March 9</b>-April 6- In hospital off and on.<br />
<b>2013 April 29- </b> - The South Africa Broadcasting
Corporation (SABC) releases video of Mandela as he sits at home
surrounded by South Africa President Zuma and other government
officials. SABC and the African National Congress, which has been
critical of media in the past, are accused of political exploitation. <br />
<b>2013</b>-in hosptal since June 8 </div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-5222376141422203382013-10-30T09:25:00.004-07:002016-03-05T13:13:10.385-08:00LAST POST- AN ESSAY ON THE WEST DESCENDANT- HISTORY IN THE NEWS SAYS GOODBYE!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<b><i>Many thanks to</i> </b><i><b>all of you who have, from time to time, followed me on <u>History In The News</u></b>. History In the News must go to its last resting place as I can no longer afford the time to give you and this blog the time and effort which both deserve. Blogs, I recognize, are for day to day opinion and observation. My hell bent attempt to create a blog as a source for up to date reference on the history behind the news, without social comment, irony or gossip- never quite managed to fly with the zeitgeist. </i><br />
<br />
<i>This last post, and all the rest, will remain online for reference.</i><br />
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
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<u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">Climbing Around in the Dark: Intimations of Decline Then
and Now</span></u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">Hugh Graham, </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">October 30, 2013</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Next
year, we’ll be faced with the centenary of the First World War and a mass of
sober reflection on the collapse of an old world and the birth of the modern
age. Yet “the war to end all wars“ was not the millennial cataclysm it’s taken
to be. The tide of irrevocable change came not with the bloodbath but with its
causes in the enervated hell-bent years that preceded it, 1900-1914.</span></div>
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" 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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Europe was at peace as well as being at its
zenith in 1913: a time which nevertheless produced Ludwig Meidner`s prescient
urban apocalypses painted, in quick succession during a Berlin heat wave in
1913:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>agonized, distorted cities under
attack from the sky, bombs bursting with a carnival air of the macabre,
altogether an unreal reality. Unreal because the works shook with a violence
seen eerily –and mistakenly- to foreshadow World War One; real because they
anticipated<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the even more horrible,
urban, aerial bombardment of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>World War
Two. It is not too much to say that the direct outgrowth of the uneasy,
restless, neurasthenic peace of 1900-1913 was Hiroshima. 1914 was only a first
eruption. The early 2000’s, the period which is now ending, recalls a far more
important centenary: the eve of 1914. The early 1900s were witness to the West
triumphant, much like the time in which we now live. 1900-1913<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bore the seeds of catastrophe. And, like our
own time, it was a time of malaise.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="GX9Ek5ndwV4EbM:" 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" style="height: 183px; margin-left: -5px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 263px;" /> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A century later, there is talk of the
mood of America and the West. The market crash of 2008, the recession and the
current breakdown of government in Washington have ignited a lot of speculation
about American decline, quickly extending to foreign policy failures and
finally to diminishing vitality and purpose. The more subliminal tremors are
not that different from those that rankled Great Britain in 1900 while she
strove all the harder to assert her supremacy. It was the bard of imperialism,
Kipling, of all people, who demanded humility and sobriety in his poem <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Recesssional:</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Far-called
our navies melt away—<br />
On dune and headland sinks the fire—<br />
Lo, all our pomp of yesterday<br />
Is one with Nineveh and Tyre!<br />
Judge of the Nations, spare us yet,<br />
Lest we forget—lest we forget!</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">I<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>THE ZENITH</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The term
“Zenith,” applied to a nation or a civilization cannot be anything but tragic.
Literally speaking, the word refers to the high point of the sun at noon,
before it falls. When we talk of a zenith, even metaphorically, like reaching
the summit of a mountain, we talk of incipient descent.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No person, institution or state can attain a
sense of arrival without some amount of unease; even a sense of failure at the
moment of victory. That is the human condition. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>America found itself at its zenith after the
fall of the Soviet Union. Most would argue that it is still there, even in the
wake of 9/11. But that does not make America immune from the ailments of
success. The nation is plagued by doubts arising from internal disunity, a
precarious economy, lingering wars. The West, meanwhile, finds itself helpless
to influence the series of populist uprisings called The Arab Spring. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Powers which once led the world, look on, baffled.
We can call it malaise. Jung, on the eve of his own personal crisis, a period
of descent during his break with Freud, wrote in 1912, in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Symbols of Transformation:</span> “In the morning of life, the son tears
himself loose from the mother, from the domestic hearth, to rise through battle
to his destined heights. Always he imagines his worst enemy in front of him,
yet he carries his enemy within himself- a deadly longing for the abyss, a
longing to drown in his own source, to be sucked down into the realm of the
Mothers.”</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
intention here isn’t to make dire predictions but to reflect on the meaning of
malaise and of the talk of decline which fills the air now as it did in a
century ago, before 1914. That fatal decade goes by various and innocuous
names: the Edwardian Period, the Long Summer, the Progressive Era, the Cubist
Decade. In his recent book on the period, Philipp Blom has named it the Vertigo
Years. If we have no single name for it, perhaps it is because the premonitions
were nebulous. Quite apart from the doomed power politics, we read of symptoms
like “exhaustion,” “neurasthenia,”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“hubris,” “over-ripeness.” In his novel <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Doctor Faustus</span>, Thomas Mann speaks of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“The fate that for so long had brooded over
Europe....” </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="pdmy_rb2cLjQaM:" 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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Malaise
never arrives during times of cataclysm, emergency or struggle. It always comes
when things are all right, or barely all right, perhaps “not quite as good as
we thought,” for example during a recovery or with awareness of terrorism or a
decaying natural environment; but most commonly in successful societies.
“Advanced civilization,” writes the philosopher Ortega y Gasset,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“is one and the same thing as arduous
problems. Hence, the greater the progress, the greater the danger it is in.
Life gradually gets better, but evidently also gradually more complicated.
”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
hazards of success seem at first morbid if spectral. Baden Powell, the Boer War
hero of the siege of Mafeking in 1899-1900,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>when Britain was at her zenith, thought the British, like ancient Rome,
were being eaten from within by “a moral virus.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his introduction to <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Secret Agent</span> (1907), Conrad described London: “the devourer of
the world’s light. There was room enough to place any story...darkness enough
to bury five millions of lives.” In his <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Heart of
Darkness</span> (1899), the River Thames, at the centre of the Empire would,
metaphorically, serve as the mouth of the Congo River and the route backward
into the primeval depravity of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Empire
and civilization: “A haze rested on the low shores that ran out to sea in
vanishing flatness. The air was dark above Gravesend, and farther back still
seemed condensed into a mournful gloom, brooding motionless over the biggest,
the greatest, town on earth.” In the same novel, Conrad whispers of the European hubris
embodied in Kurtz: “This initiated wraith from the back of Nowhere honoured me
with its amazing confidence before it vanished altogether...All Europe
contributed to the making of Kurtz.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Problem of Our Laws, </span>Kafka shares
this sense of uneasy premonition during the collapse of the Austro Hungarian
Empire and the eve of something far worse: “The law gives people a false,
deceptive and overconfident security in coming events.” </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Premonitions like these have routinely called up shades
of the Roman Empire. The clichés of the old historical analogy notwithstanding,
the Antonine period and particularly its conclusion with the reign of Marcus
Aurelius, (generally thought to be the zenith of the Roman Empire), does bear
an interesting relation to the United States under President Obama, not least
the intellectual bent and careworn, sober reserve of both leaders in the midst
of imperiums grown too large to manage. But symptoms of malaise are always
diaphanous and shifting and often best seen not in the usual facts but in art
which might even be described as the fever blister of the times. And so it is
that the bas reliefs on the Column of Marcus Aurelius, erected to celebrate his
military victories at the apex of the Empire, have themselves been seen as a
symptom of incipient decline. The historian Bamford Parkes reads into it a
feeling of conscious self-congratulation, the figures stylized, stiff, the
Emperor himself outsized in response to the growing emperor cult and concludes
that<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“art was beginning to move from
naturalism to expressionism,” much like a similar if more positive transformation
of art in 1900-1914. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="SISKhLQrl7bgnM:" 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" style="height: 164px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 247px;" /> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During all of these high periods, something
is out of joint: as Pope Gregory the Great reflects on Rome at its zenith: “There
was long life and health, material prosperity, growth of population and the
tranquillity of daily peace, yet while the world was still flourishing in
itself, in their hearts it had already withered.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In that period, the satirist was king, much
like the stand-up comic in our own time. Lucian, the good but not great
literary star of the Aurelian period, constructs little while demolishing
everything with blows well-aimed, particularly as the famous and successful.
Thus Hermes and Charon discuss the great athlete Milon and the question of
death: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">“Hermes: When he’s at his height? How could he give
any thought to death? </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">Charon: Let him be. Pretty soon he’ll hand us a big
laugh when he gets on board the skiff and isn’t able to lift a gnat, to say
nothing of a bull...” </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">And of the wealthy and powerful: “Charon: ...let them
raise themselves to the heights; the higher they go, the harder they’ll fall.
What a laugh I’ll get when I see them aboard the skiff, stark naked, without
purple rule or crown or golden couch.” </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Malaise doesn’t come quickly; it is
attenuated, it has the feeling of bad luck, a series of disconnected harbingers:
and so we have, during the time of Aurelius, a decline in belief in the
Olympian Gods and problems of identity compounded by plagues, earthquakes and the
bugbear of nascent Christianity. It is not hard to see environmental
destruction, Hurricane Katrina, the Gulf oil spill, the curse of tornadoes, Islamist
terror and even the Japanese sunami in a similar light. Bad luck, perhaps, yet
you can’t help but sense the plea: <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Why
now?</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is,
of course, a deeper, more objective problem. The “end of history” once declared
by Francis Fukuyama<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>upon the fall of
Communism, did not unfold. Resurgent post-colonial wars, rattling Western dominance emerged in its place. With the purpose and heroism of the
Cold War behind it and some sort of reckoning with China still ahead, America,
perhaps indeed the entire West, feels adrift in a historical doldrums.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The 19<sup>th</sup> century too, culminates in
anticlimax. We feel it even in Russia with the attenuated weariness that
suffuses the plays of Chekhov: In <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Cherry Orchard </span>(1900), Vershinin moans: “Mankind used to spend all its
energy making war. Life was just one campaign, one invasion after the next.
That’s all over now, but it’s left behind a tremendous void, and so far
nothing’s come along to fill it.” The Georgian idyll, a brief flare of false
optimism and nostalgia which began with George V’s ascent to the British throne
in 1910, is now seen as a fool’s paradise. In 1910-1911, TS Eliot, young and
scarcely known, is in Paris, writing poems haunted with hesitation, their
atmosphere oneiric, almost narcotic. He is only in his early twenties and
something elegiac lurks in the tone.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Portrait of a Lady, </span>only death overcomes
hesitation. In <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Prufrock</span> and elsewhere
he speaks as some one prematurely old, <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“</span>full
of high sentence, a bit of obtuse,” occasionally imagining himself, it seems,
as an elder statesman of uncertain future in an outworn era.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"> </span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="uW6zcZ0GzdVbzM:" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,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" 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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Revolt of the Masses</span> Ortega y Gasset
writes of the period that ”Life today is the fruit of an interregnum, of an
empty space between organizations of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>historical rule- that which was, that which is to be. For this reason it
is essentially provisional...” Then as now, the great powers were in the dark.
In <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Vertigo Years</span>, Blom suggests
that the period “had much in common with our own day,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>not least their openness: in 1910 and even in
1914, nobody felt confident of the shape the future world would have, of who
would wield power, what political constellation would be victorious, or what
kind of society would emerge from headlong transformation.” <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>The
mood of false calm is powerfully conveyed in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Heart of Darkness</span> when Conrad writes of mundane duties aboard a
steamboat: “When you have to attend to things of that sort, to the mere
incident of the surface, the reality- the reality, I tell you- fades. The inner
truth is hidden- luckily, luckily. But I felt it all the same; I felt often its
mysterious stillness watching me at my monkey tricks...”</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rome, in the period of Aurelius has grown
tired of her old Gods yet is unable to accept the inner truths of the new ones
that beckon, perhaps threaten from a heart of darkness beyond her borders. By
1900, traditional religion in Europe and especially in France has likewise begun
to lose its force. Secularism, even a sort of paganism looms. Art leaps to fill
the gap. At the great Paris Exposition of that year, Rodin’s disturbing,
monumental sculpture, <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Gates of Hell </span>stands
precisely between belief and unbelief. Bodies erupt from the panels and
armature, a man falls from the cornice, Icarus from his zenith. The surfaces
are black and only roughly finished, in defiance of classical perfection The doors,
classical and monumental with lintel and cornice, are the scene of writhing,
naked figures, entwined and<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>passionate,
having deserted allegory and other rules for the classical nude in favour of a
godless and frank modernity, stranding the entire production in a void without
god, yet with remnants of the sacred.. In six years Proust would begin <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Remembrance of Things Past</span>, the
attenuated novel which rests on the same threshold: between altar and
aristocracy and the solvent of modernity. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But to
say that the period faced uncertainty, a wilderness, is not entirely true.
Those of greater detachment, meaning those who were not infatuated with science,
money or nationalism, felt the zenith passing and something wrong. In the first
part of the <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Book of Hours</span> (1900) the
poet Rilke writes, “I am living just as the century departs.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two years later, words from his<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Book of Images</span> will spark recognition
from readers for whom there is something suspect in the period’s exhausting and
noisy optimism: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">“Death is great,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">and we are his</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">When we laugh in delight.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">When we reckon life at its height</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">Death dares to weep</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">In us deep inside” </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">The young German poet protests a secularizing age with
religious mysticism; an age of forgetful progress with history, an age of
hectic and shallow affirmation with gentle but persistent words of death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this, he is crossing the same no man’s
land as Rodin whom he would, in fact, get to know. The Austrian novelist, Hugh
Von Hoffmasthal<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>feels the same
presentiment when he writes: “Yet he says much who whispers ‘evening,’ a word
from which grave thought and sadness flow.” And Eliot. again, must feel the
passing as he concludes <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Portrait of a
Lady:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">“This music is successful with a ‘dying fall’</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">Now that we talk of dying-</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">And should I have the right to smile?”</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">II<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>THE TRIUMPH
OF THE INDIVIDUAL</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Europe’s and America’s late 19<sup>th</sup>
century urban revolution was bound to disappoint its promise. The new city,
after all, counted on the atomization of the individual in order to remake
traditional rural society into industrial society. Individualism was, quite
literally, the solvent for reshaping populations. This was the time when the
German sociologist Tonnies makes an epochal distinction between <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Geselleschaft</span>, or the older traditional
community which transcends its membership, and <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gemeinschaft,</span> or civil society, in which the individual is
paramount, whether as solitary wage worker out for himself, industrialist,
typist, or artist. After gains in freedom, loneliness and insecurity are not
far behind; the new world is hard-edged and turns a cold eye on Victorian
sentimentality. Whatever warm domesticity hangs on in the fine arts has drained
out of them by 1900. Edvard Munch, who in 1889 had written “I’ve had enough of
‘interiors’ and ‘people reading’ and ‘women knitting.’ I want to paint real
live people who breathe, feel, suffer and live...” paints people in terrible
isolation in his <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Dance of Life</span>
(1899-1900), three self-involved couples and an isolated onlooker pervaded by a
grimy wash, as if something were dying. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like art, the movements of liberation,
feminist, anarchist or nationalist reject tender heartedness for tough
mindedness. Heeding, if not leading the call, business is ruthless.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="FQYiYw9qjZi0lM:" 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" style="height: 173px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -2px; width: 264px;" /> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By 1900, the
new, atomized individual, on the shop floor or on the board of directors is
made to count on self-reliance; in art, the same individual withdraws into a
highly personal subjectivism. With the recession of religion, tradition and
community, many of the newly middle class lose their bearings. Some are
stranded with residual, multiple identities, especially in places like the
polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire and its aftermath. The exemplar is Kafka, too
Jewish to be Czech, too secular to be Jewish, too Czech to be German, too
German to be Czech. In a sense he is, and believes himself to be nobody, an
atom. It’s not surprising that so many of his characters are ciphers or that
his novels and stories have such a strong sense of introversion. The dark side
of today’s multiculturalism is not so different if we think of deracinated
second generation Muslims in the West.; or, for that matter, niche tribalism of
youth culture. The warning of Ortega y Gasset couldn’t be better phrased:
“Barbarism is the tendency to dissociation. Accordingly, all barbarous epochs
have been times of human scattering, of the pullulation of tiny groups,
separate from and hostile to one another.”</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Paradoxically perhaps, a healthy
individualism is the only defence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“The
individual life is the ultimate reality,” writes Ortega y Gasset,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and “Every life is a view point on the
universe.” An heir to the perspectivism of Nietzsche, he is wary of mass
movements. Likewise, art takes individual isolation at its word and asserts itself
against society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the same period, the
expressionist Franz Jung writes of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“the
impulse to place the individual ego at the centre of things against all
influences from within and without, a defence mechanism and counter-attack
against the status quo in society.” And it hasn’t stopped. The
micro-individualism of today was born in the age when Conrad’s Marlowe made
himself the subject as he reflected on Kurtz and Europe. The critic Monique
Laurent tells us that the Gates of Hell was inspired by Rodin’s own “pent up
emotional conflicts,” Rodin himself being “pessimistic and secretive.” Rodin, she
continues, quoting Sigmar Hugueburre,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“projected his own anxieties into a huge dustbin where all the coinage
of human suffering is gathered.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
present age, when individual rights are held to be more important than
obligations, whether among taxpayers of the right or activists of the left,
actually begins around 1900. It was Rodin himself, sculptor of the intoxicated,
self-absorbed figures on the Gates of Hell, of who wrote, “Humanity had no
sooner raised itself from the primeval slime than it gave in, unprotesting, to
the tyranny of the Self...the disconnectedness of modern life.” Before the end of
World War I, Ortega Y Gasset felt there was not “a single group whose attitude
to life is not limited to believing that it has all the rights and none of the
obligations. It is indifferent whether it disguises itself as reactionary or
revolutionary...” </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="UIz_ebbMSspS8M:" 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" 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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the perceptive, however, lonely egoism
can lead to revelation. One senses in Eliot and in Rodin, in the entrapped
characters of Kafka, in Conrad’s Marlowe, an element of solipsism; the world
which appals or resists them is internalized. Hero and enemy vie within and the
result is a sort of high, moral impotence. In Kafka’s parable <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Before the Law</span>, the appellant is made to
wait forever and in futility by the doorkeeper of a legal system which implies
that authority is an enigma, a hall of mirrors, made solely for the appellant
himself. In the absence of god or intelligible authority there is nothing left
but the self and the entire system may as well by a solipsism in the single
mind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">My Destination</span>, the point is brought<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>home: the master asks the servant to
provision him for a long trip “away from here” which will always mean “away
from myself.” It is the personal response to an impersonal world. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Desperate visions like these are provoked
by the disruptions of modernity, the reshaping of cities and lives. Of the
strangeness, the splendour, the unhappiness, art becomes the register. In the
words of the historian William McNeill, “such fragmentation of familiarity and
ordered experience, resulting in an arbitrary, often incongruous juxtaposition
of parts, was exactly what happened in the lives of millions of men during and
after World War I. It therefore seems as though a few unusually sensitive
spirits had sensed in advance the impending breakup.......”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
painters who sensed it most acutely and vividly were the Expressionists. The primitive
“expressionism” which, according to Parkes, betrayed itself 1,800 years before
in the Column of Marcus Aurelius was, by contrast, involuntary, its larger than
life Emperor and outsized military cordons and masses of prisoners crowding the
frames, sacrificing context to exaggeration and action; and to this extent it
shares a forceful, unapologetic subjectivity with the more conscious and critical
20<sup>th</sup> century Expressionism of Germany. The bronze column, however,
is a symptom of decline while the Expressionists identified impending collapse
in the hectic progress they saw around them. Meidner’s pictures are, perhaps,
the most typical, their commonplace cityscapes charged with a terrible anxiety
in which cartoon and realism are merged and what might have been childish
becomes satirical and demonic. These artists had repudiated the tame,
analytical naturalism of the Impressionists in favour of emotion, very often
alarm while seizing from the Symbolists the revelation of inner meaning in the
outwardly ordinary. From the viewer they demanded not contemplation but affect.
Here was art that was meant to set off warnings. Stravinsky would have expected
nothing less from his 1911 ballet <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Petrouchka</span>,
the story of a half-human carnival puppet kept prisoner by its manager, a
libretto launched into action by a score which was itself jarringly Expressionist.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Expressionists traced a lineage that passed from the furious inner vision of
Van Gogh through the anguish of Edvard Munch to the strident and violent<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>primary colours of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Matisse and the Fauves, their work appearing
simultaneously in several countries, suggesting not the voice of any one school
but a mood and a reaction in the continent itself. Meidner himself trained at
Breslau and Berlin before going<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to Paris
where he knew Modigliani. But the movement’s elixir was to be found in Germany
itself with three schools, Meidner’s <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Silent Ones,</span> Kirchner’s <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Der Brucke, </span>Kandinsky’s <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Blaue Reiter</span>, and the Vienna School of
Oskar Kokoshcka.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Among other things, these painters balked at
the “Iron Cage”- the inescapable modern labyrinth governed by market, profit
and punch clock. The term was coined by the great sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920).
Though the phenomenon isn’t as rigid today as it was then, it shares one thing
with the digital round-the clock Blackberry-assisted work ethic and disposable
service jobs, and that is insecurity, the speed of change and the compulsion to
produce. In the years before the First War the Iron Cage was demoralizing. If
it is not so today, it’s every bit as much a system and certainly as unnatural
and out of step with day to day rhythms. When Ortega Y Gasset warned that
“society begins to be enslaved, to be unable to live except <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">in the service</span> of the state,” he is
talking about any closed system in which means begin to overtake the ends for
which they were made. That is no less true today than it was a century ago or
in the increasingly militarized and bureaucratized empire of Marcus Aurelius. It
is extraordinary, in that outwardly peaceful epoch of 1900-1914, how often
entrapment appears as the theme in art, whether for Petrouchka under in thrall
of his manager, for Munch’s besieged figure in the <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Scream</span>r , Conrad’s Kurtz, or the crushing cityscapes of the
Expressionists. </span></div>
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<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="GsgZFj499prKeM:" 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" 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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Iron Cage, of course, is the terrain of
Kafka who Brecht saw as something of a prophet: “...the future instability of
the law, the future absolutism of the state apparat, the paralysed,
inadequately motivated, floundering lives of the many individual people;
everything appeared as if in a nightmare and with the confusion and inadequacy
of a nightmare...” In Kafka’s world, all authority is arbitrary and all law the
possession of that authority, therefore the law is arbitrary: as he puts it in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Problem of Our Laws, </span>“...one can
express the problem only in a sort of paradox...Any party that would repudiate
not only belief in the law but the nobility as well, would have the whole
people behind it, yet no such party would come into existence, for nobody would
dare repudiate the nobility. We live on this razor’s edge.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the parable <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Judgement</span>, a young businessman heading an inherited family
business cares for his aged and helpless father, only to discover that the old
man is in complete control of every detail of his, the son’s own life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is the deviousness of the Iron Cage
whether it be the Austro Hungarian Empire on its last legs, Soviet Russia or
Western transnational capitalism. It is not surprising that in 1914,
nationalism and the outbreak of war held the illusion of freedom and release
for so many ordinary people.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Worst of
all, the Iron Cage has no architect. That is why the demonstrations at the
World Economic summits are so amorphous and diffuse. It’s also why Europe was
shaken by a hundred sputtering revolutions in 1919, the formless mass of
ordinary people turning against an old order which was just as shapeless and
without a centre. The Iron cage or merely the society in which people live, no
matter who profits from it or runs it is, in effect, filled with cumulative
unintended consequences. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rome after
Aurelius and Europe before the First War were massive, unmanageable facts; not unlike
the fragile state of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>today’s world
economy, massive unemployment, the rise of China and the unforeseen appearance
of popular revolution in the Middle East. Then as now, none of it was expected.
By 1900 Britain, mistress of the world’s largest empire was suddenly faced with
being only one of several competing European states when she had only recently
been Europe’s master. With little warning, she faced the behemoths of Germany
and the United States just as an astonished United States now faces China. The
dilemmas which today’s America holds<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in
common with Britain on the verge of decline in 1900-1914 would seem more than
coincidence or clever analogy. Free trade, or liberal <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">laissez faire</span> as it was then known, did not produce the anticipated
boom in wealth and productivity for Britain after 1900 and it hasn’t done so
today for the United States. In all of these unexpected turns there’s a sense
of non-recognition: “This can’t be the world I live in.” In the work of Arnold
Schoenberg the unstructured, the alarming and unfamiliar rises out of his Opus
11, No. 1, an experimental work rejected by the public for being “atonal”
because it had no key while Schonberg responded with defiance that it was
“pantonal”: everything happening at once.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="9gLLieuHpRVyGM:" 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</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Britain could not hear, much less listen. The
English were behind. When, in 1910, the Bloomsbury group put on a London
exhibition of Post-Impressionists like Van Gogh, Cezanne and Gaugin <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>suggesting it was tonic for a dying,
desiccated world, the public was baffled and outraged. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If England was still politically powerful, it
lagged psychologically. The sense that the past was no longer beneath Europe’s
feet was felt more strongly on the continent, especially in Germany. In the
words of the Cambridge historian, Jay Winter, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">"Most of German society as
it was in the early 19th Century had vanished by 1900. The pace of urbanization
was huge. Berlin was a provincial backwater in 1860. By 1910 it was one of the
great metropolitan centers of the world,”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Rilke’s novel, <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge</span>, Malte’s family is surprised
to discover old friends living in one wing of their fire-gutted mansion: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">“Georg had completely
forgotten that the house wasn’t there, and for all it <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">was</span> there at that moment. We walked up the front steps that led to
the old terrace, and were amazed to find it so dark...My father laughed: “We
are climbing around like ghosts,” and he helped us back down the stairs...'But
there was a house just now,' Maman said...” </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTSRUQJN9e7wqFCsOGfG7-18PhDCQq7inoMSmiFwewK8iN2eClV" data-sz="f" name="IlVKEDVbX8gD1M:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTSRUQJN9e7wqFCsOGfG7-18PhDCQq7inoMSmiFwewK8iN2eClV" style="height: 240px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -12px; width: 142px;" /> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The vanishing acts continue. In the
twenty-first century, the house of the twentieth century is gone; nothing is
clearly there at the top of the steps. There is no continuity. In the darkness
we mistake one thing for another. In politics, ad hominem slander is taken for
rebuttal. In life, laxity is taken for liberty. In the media, slander and libel
masquerade as free speech. The quick and shallow is taken for the concise. Incivility
is understood as informality. Anonymity passes for equality. The vulgar is
mistaken for the democratic. Egalitarianism is confused with the lowest common
denominator. When a society has entered a swamp of banality and drift without
any idea how it got there, it is, often as not, a sign of decline.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the
opening years of the twentieth century, the ruling orders of a new, brassy and
triumphalist Germany reached unimagined heights in loud, upper class, jingoist,
militarist vulgarity. Even the huge, Social Democratic workers’ revolutionary
movement was hypnotized by the new Germany. By instinct, expressionists hit the
opposite note. They sought the depraved, the impoverished and the hidden. It
was Nietzsche, in the words of Barbara Tuchman, who had “unleashed the German
unconscious,” the best and the worst of it. The best emerged in the arts which
showed an ordinary Germany of poverty, anxiety and violence, the dark side of
the new obsession with power and speed; above all a rejection of the
sentimental domesticity that was supposed to support the Reich. In the words of
Marcuse: “Expressionism attracted me- by its negation of tables and chairs and
all that stuff, by its liberation of vision (from) what is only obscured by all
the rubbish, large and small.” The fatigue with industrialism comes through
even in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Heart of Darkness:</span> -“I was
helping the engine-driver to take to pieces the leaky cylinders, to straighten
a bent connecting rod, and in other such matters I lived in an infernal mess of
rust, filings, nuts, bolts, spanners, hammers, ratchet drills...I toiled
wearily in a wretched scrap-heap...” Above all, in Kafka’s <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Metamorphosis</span>, an ordinary family blandly if reluctantly accepts
that their son has become a giant bug while the son, with all his waving legs
makes every attempt to dress and go to work- much indeed as ordinary Germans
and Austrians stood by as grotesquely over-powerful military machines took them
toward a reasonless war. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="txjPZqqznPlPNM:" 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" style="height: 190px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 157px;" /> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fact
was that Europe, since the Enlightement of the 18<sup>th</sup> century, had
been “disenchanted,” to use Weber’s phrase, The spirit world of religion had
retreated, much as it had withdrawn in Aurelian Rome, while the clamour of
nationalism made a poor replacement. Much as Romans sought sensation in
strange, eastern rites, so the west found it in Madame Blavatsky, Theosophy and
the occult. Some felt the sad gaze of the old gods and history as did Hardy in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Channel Firing</span> (1914):<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">“Again the guns disturbed the hour,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">Roaring their readiness to avenge, as far inland as
Stourton Towner,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">And Camelot and starlit Stonehenge.”</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"> In Prague, meanwhile, speculators and bureaucrats
conspired to destroy entire sections of the old city and replace them with the
monotonous row housing “which brought the epoch of hustle and bustle and threw
away the heritage of the past without creating a style and expression of its
own.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps the elites, who had more
faith in science than they did in religion or values, did not feel the
emptiness any more than do the strident materialists of today. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kafka
knew that void. It was the motive force behind his writing. He rejected, as one
critic puts it, “the irreligious humanism that lies at the basis of Freud’s
psychoanalysis. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">He completely and resolutely despaired of Freud’s
rationalistic faith in the curative power of scientific knowledge.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Kafka, the disappearance of an old,
metaphysical order left a hostile cosmos in which anything could happen, a
place inhabited by, in the words of Walter Benjamin, “the modern citizen who
knows that he is at the mercy of a vast machinery of officialdom whose functioning
is directed by authorities that remain nebulous to the executive organs, let
alone to the people they deal with.” Indeed, the secularized Kafka had briefly
sought escape into Zionism before considering refuge in the old Eastern Jewish
diaspora; finding neither sufficient he determined to face the absurdity of the
bleak and the modern simply by writing.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A similar problem faced Rodin, though the
solution was different. Where Kafka despaired, Rodin hung on to a metaphysics
without God. <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Gates of Hell </span>partook
in the extremes of France’s Catholic Revival, which had, since the mid-century,
attempted to salvage the drama of sin, damnation and salvation but without
piety and without a present or loving god. Lest the bland entropy of commerce and
materialism abolish any metaphysical dimension altogether, artists like Baudelaire
saw the need for an awareness of the razor’s edge between a receding God,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the delights of sin and the ironic exaltation
of Satan if only to provide urgency and drama to morality, rather than submit
to an age of bland moral indifference. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gates of Hell </span>was commissioned on August
16, 1880. The fact that Rodin continued to work on it up to and beyond 1900
suggests his full participation in the growing thirty year crisis until <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">oeuvre </span>and artist were themselves
recognized as Expressionist. What is significant is that he <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>began with Dante.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By 1880, the <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Inferno</span> had become the preferred <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>book of the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Commedia</span>
for artists and writers increasingly concerned with materialism and amorality.
Though Rodin’s sketches for <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Gates of
Hell</span> began by illustrating the <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Inferno</span>,
he ended by dropping most of Dante but<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>using his suffering damned as a point of departure, in a sense discarding
the incense of heaven while <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>retaining
the incense of hell. “From Dante he came to Baudelaire,” wrote Rilke, who
became his secretary, “…In the poet’s writing there are passages which appear
to have been sculpted rather than written…He recognized Baudelaire as his artistic
predecessor…in the search for characters who were larger than life, crueller,
more fevered.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A world
alive with sin but without a god and a holy libertinism acutely conscious of
danger <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and evil had been the themes of
Baudelaire’s mid-century volume of poetry, <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Flowers of Evil. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>In the words of
Elsen, “…<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Les Fleurs Du Mal</span> worked
their way into ‘The Gates of Hell.’...Baudelaire’s pessimistic view of the
trials of the modern spirit was its poetic articulation and confirmation. ”</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTPYkDsZITOaATpyYOBdAKFfcGa05J2bX3h5wHfJPJF6FFFZrr_" data-sz="f" name="zYgARdSlB_4flM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTPYkDsZITOaATpyYOBdAKFfcGa05J2bX3h5wHfJPJF6FFFZrr_" style="height: 171px; margin-left: -4px; margin-right: -5px; margin-top: 0px; width: 228px;" /> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Great
moral drama is now out of fashion; an uncompelling substitute seems to be the
science and forensics of good and evil and the easy television fare of crime
families, ancient and modern along with journalistic debates about belief in
god and the morality of religion. The absence of emotional force today may be
just the sort of thing that worried Baudelaire in his own time. It might even
be a sign of decline. The profound, post-romantic meditations on life, death,
evil and morality began to peter out around 1900, though there was a long coda:
1906 (retrospectively) is the year in which Thomas Mann has Adrian Leverkhun
contract syphilis from a prostitute, the moment at which the Faustian composer
hero in the novel <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Doctor Faustus, </span>sells
his soul and his talent to the devil of seduction and madness. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By 1912, the devil is pretty well gone though
a sense of the infernal remains in Schoenberg’s “nightmare vision” of <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pierre Lunaire, </span>an orchestrated
“speech-song” whose first part is devoted to “love, sex and religion” followed
by a second part on “violence, crime and blasphemy.”<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the acute, there was still the smell of
death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1902, the year he became
Rodin’s secretary, Rilke arrived in Paris to write a monograph on the sculptor,
and the poet seems, according to his novel, <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Notebooks of Laurids Malte Brigge</span>, to have seen death everywhere and in
everything. As with Kafka, the metaphysical dimension is never entirely absent
while the fallen, mortal world is increasingly seen from within. Conveying the
bowels, the sewers, the overbuilt palimpsests of decay on which the city is
constructed like a human body in a state of dissipation, Rilke launches a
virtuoso passage on the living stains left by the summary demolition of
attached houses, leaving interior walls imprinted with drains and waste pipes,
encrusted with the build-up of human effluvia and the oozing bacterial life
that cling to it, and to his horror he realizes he’s looking inside himself-
man and city, microcosm and macrocosm festering and moribund. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After
1900, as with a river beginning to surge under the stillness of ice, the
hairline cracks were apparent. With long hindsight, it’s possible to say that
technological progress and the rapid accumulation of wealth and power during a
century of peace had outstripped the human capacity to adapt to what it had created. British
historians who compared Britain to Rome at its height seemed reluctant to take
the comparison further in time. British politics was polarized, the old Liberal
consensus crumbling. An extreme individualism had triumphed not just in art but
in society, in business and among lone nations each looking for its own survival.
Too many nations, arming themselves since 1870, had come powerful and with
power were becoming belligerent. The system of alliances, linking every country
in Europe and without checks, seemed poised to produce a chain reaction.
Political tests of strength produced brinksmanship, a hell bent arms race
between Germany and Britain. Overcompensation characterized nations as much as
individuals in an epochal fear of weakness. Breakneck progress for the average
person brought displacement, anomie and frustration and not the promised
delights. With such material, artistic vision flourished everywhere in Europe
while most other progress surged on without much sense of what lay ahead. Among
the Expressionists, according<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to the
critic Paul Raabe, “The will to live and work was not unmixed with premonitions
of disaster. Unwittingly this generation bore the mark of Cain: war and death
came like a visitation of man kind...”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Ludwig Meidner’s <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Corner House</span>,
(1913)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is perhaps most representative precisely
because this depiction of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the innocuous ‘Villa
Kochmann,’ in Dresden is uneventful; merely the image of a house. Its three
stories with their classical pediments, cornice and moulding recall, like
the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>design of Rodin’s <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gates</span>, tradition and the past. Yet the picture
is pervaded by violent, seismic vibration as if all were on the point of destruction.
Sky and atmosphere alike are a turgid blue-grey. The perspective is distorted
as if the viewer were suffering the same vertigo as the building while the very
sky takes on the quaking and buckling of the roof. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">III<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>THE FALL </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
“...vital level represented by Europe at the present day is superior to the
whole of the human past, but if we look to the future, we are made to fear that
it will neither preserve the level reached nor attain to a higher one, but
rather will recede and fall back upon lower heights.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These words of Ortega Y Gasset are frank;
there is even a tone of resignation. The statesmen who sent Europe careening
into the First World War were fourteen years into a new century and they still
lived in the old. In 1912, Jung wrote in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Symbols
of Transformation: </span>“If we wish to stay on the heights we have reached, we
must struggle all the time to consolidate our consciousness and its attitude.
But we soon discover that this praiseworthy and apparently unavoidable battle
with the years leads to stagnation and desiccation of the soul. Our convictions
become platitudes ground out on a barrel organ, our ideas become starchy habits,
enthusiasm stiffens into automatic gestures. The source of the water of life
seeps away.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the historian Arnold
Toynbee the first cause of decline is unimaginative, mechanical leadership.
Whether or not recent leadership in the West has been uninspiring, one thing is
certain: the age of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>charismatic
stewards<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>that included Roosevelt,
Churchill, DeGaulle and Kennedy ended with Trudeau. But one thing held in
common between present leaders and those on the eve of the First World War is
that all emerged from a long period of peace.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The wars fought by Marcus Aurelius were fought on the margins of the Pax
Romana. In the peace that otherwise reigned, innovative leadership had ground
to a halt. The problems of government had become intransigent, or, to use one
of our buzz words, “systemic.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The figures that project from Rodin’s
G<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ates of Hell, </span>cling to ledges,
crouch and fall from cornices while the structure itself retains its classical
grandeur.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The decline, if not the fall of
nations is usually accompanied by great wealth and its mismanagement. The
society of Rome under Marcus Aurelius was extremely rich despite the Princeps’
preference for the army and the bureaucracy. Like the hi-tech billionaires
of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>America, a new aristocracy filled second
century Rome’s upper ranks. As in America, there was<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>an unparalleled disparity between the rich
and the poor with two levels of citizenship aggravating strife between the
classes. By 1900, personal wealth in Britain was vast while poverty was so widespread
by 1914, that it could no longer be kept secret. For<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Toynbee the mutual alienation of governors
and governed through polarization of rich and poor and imperial expansion was
the second stage of decline.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSkMpHE5Sm0PkCh4IMSRNJpXI9HtXCAVSF_Lztlx8PECVA6hWXd" data-sz="f" name="7i-Te184zIzv4M:" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSkMpHE5Sm0PkCh4IMSRNJpXI9HtXCAVSF_Lztlx8PECVA6hWXd" style="height: 174px; margin-left: -5px; margin-right: -6px; margin-top: 0px; width: 232px;" /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As
long as a country remains the world’s wealthiest, it can endure a declining economy,
as Britain had since 1875 and as America has for a few decades. But for Britain
it did not bode well, even as it survived financial crises in 1903 and 1907.
The United States survived a market crash and near economic depression in 2008
caused by bad loans and mortgages on a massive scale. In Aurelian Rome, Lucian
told his readers that Timon went broke mismanaging the money of Athens and that
despite orders from Zeus, the god Wealth refused to bail him out saying,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“So help me Zeus, that man insulted me. He
squandered me. He cut me up into little pieces...he got rid of me quicker than
you’d drop a hot potato. Go back there and be handed over again to a bunch of
parasites, bootlickers and whores? No, Zeus...”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Western world is not in a state
of collapse but it is certainly past its zenith. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">“There is no longer a ‘plenitude of the times,’”
wrote Ortega Y Gasset about Europe in Edwardian times, “for this supposes a
clear, prefixed, unambiguous future, as was that of the XIXth century. Then men
thought they knew what was going to happen tomorrow. But now once more the
horizon opens out toward new unknown directions because it is not known <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">who </i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is going to rule, how authority is going to
organized over the world.” In the same period, Eliot’s hesitant lover in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i>adopts the tone of a prescient but
helpless elder statesman:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">I have seen the moment of my
greatness flicker,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">And I have seen the eternal
Footman hold my coat, and</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>snicker,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">And in short, I was afraid.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though nothing is on the point of breaking in
the West, the signs of decline have returned and are probably here to stay. The
present generations remain the inheritors and not the originators of their
culture. For a hundred years, the energy released in the demise of faith has
dissipated into a warm bath of art, high technology and popular culture, a
comfortable medium-low common denominator which pales beside its origins in the
Promethean cultural supernova of 1900-1914. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the West can still be brilliant
if it descends well instead of badly. In the words of Jung, -“...let those who
go down the sunset way do so with open eyes, for it is a sacrifice which daunts
even the gods. Yet every descent is followed by an ascent; the vanishing shapes
are shaped anew, and a truth is valid in the end only if it suffers change and
bears new witness in new images, in new tongues...”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To re-emerge in a different form will be
possible only if the blind barbarism that lies dormant like larvae in a culture
that remains preoccupied with violence and its own superiority is allowed to
die in its sleep. For the worm is still there, as it was in 1914.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">“Judge
of the Nations, spare us yet,<br />
Lest we forget—lest we forget!”</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 5;"> </span>-END-</span><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"></span></div>
<br />
<i>
</i><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i></div>
<i>
Hugh Graham, October 30, 2013. </i></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-31771056207844650072013-09-06T08:17:00.001-07:002013-09-06T08:17:38.084-07:00TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF TURKEY AND FOR THE HISTORY OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1900 BC- 2013<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<br />
<b>TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF TURKEY AND FOR THE HISTORY OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1900 BC- 2013</b><br />
<br />
<b>Turkey</b><br />
<b> </b><br />
<b><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTCDeHjuygxbEWgOI3cZWTNnQXvLwCQ5ize7CYr7qwCsxex0tDKZA" data-sz="f" name="kfGoG-ldQ5-SKM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTCDeHjuygxbEWgOI3cZWTNnQXvLwCQ5ize7CYr7qwCsxex0tDKZA" style="height: 194px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -6px; width: 259px;" /> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b> </b><i>(Thanks to the BBC for some items after 2007)</i></div>
<br />
The Hittites<br />
<br />
1900 BC- Hittites migrate from the Caucasus to Northern Anatolia.<br />
<br />
1680-1650- Labarna established as capital of Hittite Kingdom.<br />
<br />
1550- the Hittite New Kingdom.<br />
<br />
-Hittites defeated by Egypt and forced to pay tribute.<br />
<br />
1380-
Hittite King Shubbiluliu defeats the Mitanni. The Hittites are the
first to smelt Iron- explaining some of their military superiority.<br />
<br />
1380-1200- the Hittite Empire.<br />
<br />
1294- Battle of Kadesh, Syria: Hittites push back the Egyptians.<br />
<br />
1260- Destruction of Troy.<br />
<br />
1200- Hittites defeated by the Hyksos.<br />
<br />
The Greeks and Persians<br />
<br />
1200- beginning of the Iron Age.<br />
<br />
1200-700- the Dark Age of Greece.<br />
<br />
-decline of Mycenae and of the Anatolian Hittites<br />
<br />
-the Greeks colonize the Anatolian coast,<br />
<br />
546 BC- Persian conquest of Anatolia.<br />
<br />
521-486- BC- Darius the Great extends the empire as far as the Aegean and Macedonia;<br />
<br />
490- Darius the Great invades Greece. He is defeated at Marathon.<br />
<br />
480- Darius the Great’s army is defeated at Thermopylae; his navy is destroyed at Salamis<br />
<br />
Alexander and the Seleucids<br />
<br />
336- Alexander the Great takes Anatolia.<br />
<br />
312-280- Seleucus controls Alexander’s empire which includes Anatolia and most of the Middle East.<br />
<br />
263- the Greek Seleucid kings begin to lose Anatolia.<br />
<br />
175-
Antioch IV, Epiphanes consolidates Cilicia (SE Anatolia), Syria,
Babylonia, Media. Encourages Hellenism and Greek manners. Tries to
abolish Judaism in order to unify everyone against Rome<br />
<br />
Rome<br />
<br />
100 AD- Rome controls Asia Minor (Anatolia)<br />
<br />
63 AD- Rome begins to conquer the Seleucid Levant..<br />
<br />
Byzantium<br />
<br />
305-324 AD Constantine and the eastern Empire victorious in civil war.<br />
<br />
313- Conversion of Constantine to Christianity.<br />
<br />
325- the Council of Nicea.<br />
<br />
330- Rome replaced by Constantinople as capital of the empire. Founding of Constantinople and Byzantium.<br />
<br />
527-565- Reign of Justinian<br />
<br />
610-641- Reign of Heraclitus of Byzantium.<br />
<br />
The Arrival of Islam<br />
<br />
717- Muslim siege of Constantinople.<br />
<br />
800-1000- Byzantine and Islamic Arab rivalry over Jerusalem.<br />
<br />
The Seljuk Turks<br />
<br />
1040-1170- the Middle East dominated by the Seljuk Turks.<br />
<br />
1071-
Battle of Manzikert- Byzantines lose Anatolia to the Central Asian
Seljuk Turks under Malik Shah. Seljuks establish tolerance toward
Christians and Jews.<br />
<br />
-Seljuks set up their capital in the Hittite city of Konia. Konia becomes a great cultural center.<br />
<br />
The Crusaders<br />
<br />
1204- Constantinople sacked by the Crusaders.<br />
<br />
1204-1261- Latin empire of Constantinople.<br />
<br />
1243- Mongols break up the Seljuk empire into rival principalities.<br />
<br />
The Ottomans<br />
<br />
-Osman rallies followers in Sogut, in north-central Anatolia.<br />
<br />
1249-
the Mamluks, a Turkish slave corps under the Fatimids, found a dynasty
in Egypt, overthrowing the Ayyubids and taking Palestine<br />
<br />
1261-1453- Constantinople retaken by the Palaeologi. Byzantium is restored.<br />
<br />
-in Palestine, the Mamluks try to resist the growing power of the Ottoman Turks by making trade contact with Europe<br />
<br />
1326- Osman unites central Turkey as far as Anatolia. As he is dying. Osman takes Bursa in north-east Anatolia by siege.<br />
<br />
The Ottoman Invasion of the Balkans<br />
<br />
-Osman’s son Othan expands Ottoman rule into the Balkans.<br />
<br />
1354- the Ottoman Turks under Murad invade the Balkans.<br />
<br />
1389- Murad and the Ottomans take the southern Balkans at the Battle of Kosovo.<br />
<br />
1395- the Sultan Bayezid lays siege to Constantinople and defeats Christian armies.<br />
<br />
1402- Bayezid defeated by Tamerlane at Ankara.<br />
<br />
1421- Mehmet consolidates Ottoman power.<br />
<br />
- Murad II extends Ottoman conquests as far as Hungary.<br />
<br />
1451- Mehmet II.<br />
<br />
Ottomans Take Constantinople<br />
<br />
1453- Constantinople falls to the Turks under Mehmet II. Mehmet rebuilds Constantinople as a tolerant center of learning.<br />
<br />
-Mehmett II takes Greece as far as the Adriatic.<br />
<br />
Selim the Magnificent<br />
<br />
1514-
Under Selim the Magnificant, Otoman power is extended to the head of
the Persian Gulf. (Iraq) using Janissari slave armies made up of
Christian men and boys indoctrinated in Islam and given strict training.<br />
<br />
-France joins the Italian city states in trade with the Ottoman Levant.<br />
<br />
1516- Ottomans under Selim take Jerusalem and Egypt from the Mamluks.<br />
<br />
Palestine<br />
<br />
1517-
Palestine and Gaza come under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. But for
the Ottomans, there is no single entity called Palestine. It is divided
into the Sanjak (district) of Jerusalem in the south and the vilayat
(province) of Beirut in the north. The city of Jerusalem is ruled
directly from Constantinople.<br />
<br />
-the Ottomans bring an end to strife between Turks and Mamluks in Palesine.<br />
<br />
-the Ottomans restore security to trade routes throughout the Middle East.<br />
<br />
-Palestine begins a short-lived economic and cultural recovery with the renewed flourishing of Arab traders<br />
<br />
- under Ottoman rule, the Mamluk territory of southern Syria and Palestine is ruled from Damascus.<br />
<br />
-the
Ottomans isolate Palestine from outside influences. However, they grant
Francis I of France the right to protect Christian shrines in
Palestine.<br />
<br />
Far-flung Conquests.<br />
<br />
1520-1566- Suleiman takes Rhodes, North Africa, defeats the Portugeuse at the Red Sea.<br />
<br />
1526- battle of Mohacs- conquest of Hungary by the Ottomans.<br />
<br />
-Egypt is still administered by the Mameluks.<br />
<br />
1529-
Suleiman promises to help the King of Hungary against the Habsburgs in
return for Hungarian assistance in laying siege to Vienna. The siege
fails when the weather turns cold.<br />
<br />
Ottoman Engagement with Europe; France and Lebanon.<br />
<br />
-1536-
Francis I of France and the sultan, Suleiman I, sign a treaty of
capitulations concerning permanent French trading settlements in the
Levant and Turks trading in France; free trade and freedom of religion
in one another's countries. Right to be tried in court by one's own
consul or nationals. The agreement is renewable upon expiry.<br />
<br />
1541- Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the magnificent rebuilds city walls of Jerusalem.<br />
<br />
1566- death of Suleiman the Magnificent.<br />
<br />
1571-
the Christian Holy League (Venice, the Italian city states and Spain)
defeats the Ottoman navy in the battle of Lepanto off the coast of
Greece. Ottoman expansion ends.<br />
<br />
-1580 (circa)- in Rome, Gregory XIII founds a seminary to train Maronite seminarians for the clergy.<br />
<br />
1585-1635- Fakhr al Din, Druze leader in Lebanon conducts his own foreign policy and invites Christian missionaries.<br />
<br />
-European
powers begin to close in on the Ottoman Empire but they want the sultan
kept in place so that no country can seize the overall advantage.<br />
<br />
-1600-1900-
Lebanese tribal chiefs encourage French Catholic missionaries to
develop education in the country. Rome-educated Maronite priests return
to Lebanon and spread western ideas.<br />
<br />
1642-91- Suleiman II.<br />
<br />
1649-
Ottoman Sultan issues a decree allowing France's Louis XIV to protect
the Maronites. French clergy and French-educated Maronite priests begin
to influence political institutions.<br />
<br />
Seeds of Ottoman Weakness<br />
<br />
Selim
II and weak rulers after him become the instruments of their own
bureaucracy and advisors. Bureaucrats become power-hungry, corrupt and
undisciplined.<br />
<br />
-outlying regions like Egypt, Yemen,
Arabia, Kurdish provinces in east Turkey, Moldavia and Walachia are only
loosely controlled, keeping their own systems of rule and having only a
tributary relationship. As government from the center weakens, their
autonomy increases.<br />
<br />
1656- Grand Vizier Mehmet Koprulu slows Ottoman decline by instituting reforms. Thousands executed for corruption.<br />
<br />
The Last Seige of Vienna<br />
<br />
-the
Koprulu dynasty takes Turkey into Poland and the Ukraine but by 1700
the empire has lost territory to Poland, Russia and Austria.<br />
<br />
1683-
the Ottoman siege of Vienna fails when the city is relieved by the
Polish king, John Sobieski. Henceforth, the Ottoman Empire will
gradually shrink until its end in 1920.<br />
<br />
1699- the Ottomans begin to release territories in the Balkans.<br />
<br />
Rapprochement with France<br />
<br />
1703-1730-
the Ottoman court attempts to adopt the styles of French royalty. Some
Enlightenment ideas begin to filter into the intelligentsia. The first
Arabic printing press.<br />
<br />
The French form close trade relations with Ottoman Syria.<br />
<br />
-1736-
with Ottoman approval, France becomes protector of the Maronite
Christians. The Church of Rome grants the Maronites recognition.<br />
<br />
-1740- trade agreements between France and the Ottomans confirmed in perpetuity.<br />
-the coastal area around Beirut and Tyre becomes the most Europeanized part of the Muslim world.<br />
Conflict with Russia<br />
<br />
-1757- contrary to the agreement with the French, the Ottomans agree to Russia being the protector of Christians in the Levant.<br />
<br />
1772-1774- the First Russo Turkish War.<br />
<br />
1774- Ottoman forces routed by Russia under Catherine II. Peace of Kuchuk Kainarji.<br />
<br />
Russia
consolidates control over the Black sea and reduces Turkish power in
the Crimean, clearing the way for Crimea’s annexation. This treaty is
seen as the beginning of Ottoman decline. The Ottomans reaffirm Russia
as the protector of Christians in the Levant.<br />
<br />
-the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji also allows Russia to be protector of Greek Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman empire.<br />
<br />
-prompted by French protection of the Maronites, Lebanon's Ottoman rulers incite the Druzes to move against the Maronites<br />
<br />
.<br />
<br />
Bonaparte Invades Egypt.<br />
<br />
1798-99-
to cut India off from the British, the French, under General Bonaparte,
launch an invasion of Egypt and from Egypt to Palestine and Syria,
breaking the rule of the Mamluks. Appealing to English strategic help
and Turkish armies, Bonaparte is forced back to Egypt. Though their
attempt at domination fails, the French manage to sustain a presence in
the region dating back to the Crusades.<br />
<br />
Ottoman Attempts at Reform.<br />
<br />
-Ottoman
rulers are convinced that the only way to overcome defeat at the hands
of Europe is to adopt European military methods and technology<br />
<br />
1789-1808-
Selim III- By reducing his advisors to a cabinet of 12 ministers, he
cuts the power of the Grand Vizier. Turkey is opened to western ideas
and education. Permanent embassies are opened in London, paris, Vienna
and Berlin.<br />
<br />
-French military assistance and supply is
secured via Napoleon’s ambassador. But the Janissaries rebel and force
Selim to cancel the idea..<br />
<br />
1807- Selim III launches a modernization program.<br />
<br />
1808- rejecting Selim’s modernization attempts, the Janissaries force him to abdicate. Reformers in his court are massacred.<br />
<br />
-July-
Mahmud II succeeds Selim- preparing for a new attempt at reform by
creating a group of loyal officers and advisors. When the Janissaries
refuse the reforms, Mahmud has them isolated and killed throughout the
empire. All Janissarie institutions razed and rooted out.<br />
<br />
-a new military corps is reorganized bys sending officers to school in England and using Prussian trainers and advisers.<br />
<br />
Invasion by the Egyptian Viceroy, Muhammed Ali.<br />
<br />
-1831-
Muhammed Ali, Egyptian viceroy to the Ottomans, deals with rebellions
against the Ottomans in Saudi Arabia and in Greece. The Ottoman Sultan,
Mahmoud, having promised him Syria and Palestine as a reward, renegs.
Ali rebels, takes Syria and from Syria occupies Palestine. He and his
son open the area to European influence.<br />
<br />
1831-40-
Egyptian occupation of Syria and Palestine. Because Ali is a protege of
France, France refuses to help the Sultan. Ali wins Cilicia, Palestine
and Syria.<br />
<br />
-Mohammed Ali invites the French Jesuits to set up in Lebanon where the Jesuits become protectors of the Maronite Christians.<br />
<br />
-Britain, meanwhile, allies itself with Druze chieftains in southern Lebanon<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Ottoman Reforms.</b><br />
<br />
1834- a national militia is set up by the Ottomans to supervise military training in the remote provinces.<br />
<br />
-the power of the provinces is reduced. Roads, trade, postal service and communications are reformed. Corruption is reduced.<br />
<br />
-education
of medical and army personnel in French, English and German and leads
to enlightenment and adoption of western ideas. Western books printed.
When the clergy objected or blocked the reforms, they were ignored or
killed outright.<br />
<br />
-western style dress is introduced and
sometimes enforced; Turkish dress is moderated. However, all of
Mahmud’s reforms only reached the elite in and around Istanbul-
elsewhere their application was only superficial. The administration
remains conservative.<br />
<br />
1839- death of Mahmud II.<br />
<br />
-Mahmud’s
proclamation of constitutional reform, the Tanzimat, inspired by
British reforms of the 1830s, is issued after his death.<br />
<br />
-Reshid
Pasha, his advisor, promotes the reform. It promises protection of life
and property for all creeds, tax reform, reform of conscription
pratices. Enforcement of the rule of law for all classes. Attack on
corruption. Reshid’s reform movement is known at the Tanzimat.<br />
<br />
Muhammed Ali of Egypt is Stopped by the English.<br />
<br />
-1840-1
-in a bid to stop the center of power in the Middle East moving to
French-supported Egypt, the British invade and expel Muhammed Ali from
Syria and Palestine and the Ottomans reassert control. Nevertheless,
western influence continues to penetrate the area.the allied powers in
Europe, minus France, force Ali to withdraw from Syria to Egypt.<br />
<br />
Lebanon: the Maronite-Druze Civil War.<br />
<br />
-1840- the Maronite-Druze feudal system falls apart. A civil war begins which will last until 1860.<br />
<br />
1841-
Reshid is dismissed and his campaign of reform is dropped as the regime
becomes more conservative while turning anti-Christian.<br />
<br />
1843-
France and Britain persuade the Sultan to allow French-backed
administration by the Maronites in the north and British-backed Druze
administration by the British in the south.<br />
<br />
-the treaties of capitulation 0f 1536 and 1740 become the means for the French to intervene in Lebanon in local affairs.<br />
<br />
-peasant uprising against both Druze and Maronite rule in Lebanon.<br />
<br />
Ottoman Reforms Backfire.<br />
<br />
1845- Reshid attempts his reforms again by attempting to westernize the education system.<br />
<br />
1851-
religious conservatives block Reshid’s education reforms. Local
conservative notables co-opt his attempts to strengthen provincial
governments.<br />
<br />
-the young, upper class Ottoman intelligentsia profits by the reforms and begin to write modern scholarly works.<br />
<br />
-the
remote non-Muslim corners of the empire also exploit the influx of
western ideas to undermine Ottoman dominance. In the Balkans, Christian
nationalist sentiments are aroused and rebellions are put down by force<br />
<br />
-Anatolia, the most Turkish part of the empire, remains the most backward. Everywhere else, the Turks are in a minority.<br />
<br />
-Muslims
tend to compete for political positions, while entrepreneurship and
progress in commerce is left to Jews, Greeks and Armenians and through
them, the Europeans. Increasingly the Muslim population has contempt for
Christians and their modernizing tendencies.<br />
<br />
-all reform and modernization took place mostly at the top of society and even then it was superficial.<br />
<br />
The Crimean War.<br />
<br />
-Britain regards Turkey as a barrier to Russian expansion.<br />
<br />
-The
Sultan begins to give in to Russian pressure to restore Russia as the
guarantor of Christianity and the Holy Places of the Middle East. In the
end, however, the Sultan sides with England and France. In response,
Russia occupies neighbouring Ottoman provinces of Wallachia and Moldovia
under the pretext of protecting Russian Orthodoxy. The Russian action
sparks the Crimean war.<br />
<br />
-1854- under threat of war,
Napoleon III forces the Ottoman Sultan to recognize France as protector
of the Christians in the Levant. In this he had British support against
the ambitions of Russia in the Middle East<br />
<br />
1853-1856.
Crimean war. Ottoman westernizers attempt to weaken Russian claims that
non-Muslims are suffering under Ottoman rule. Istanbul is urged to adopt
reforms. Even conservatives, influenced by young westernizers begin to
back reform.<br />
<br />
-in Lebanon, Maronite Christians, with
French support and European cultural influence begin to challenge the
Druzes. The local Ottoman governor inflames the conflict in hopes that
the groups would destroy one another.<br />
<br />
1855- Jerusalem expands beyond its city walls. Its population, once small and stagnant, increases.<br />
<br />
-the Palestinian Arab Husayni family takes over large tracts of land in southern Palestine<br />
Failed Attempts at Economic Reform<br />
<br />
1856
-French and English allies of Turkey pressure the Sultan to adopt
reforms with the “Hatti-Humayun”, a second edict of reform promoting
tolerance, tax reform, modernization of the role of banks and investment
houses.. However the reforms are mostly ignored by. anti-Christian
Muslims. Officials, enraged by Christian-revolts in the Balkans, evade
all implementation.<br />
<br />
-Midhat Pasha, governor of Bulgaria
crushes Christian rebellions but builds roads, hospitals, schools,
cooperatives. He is equally hard on Muslims and Christians.<br />
<br />
-Midhat Pasha then becomes governor of Iraq and later of Salonika.<br />
<br />
-Sultan Abdul Aziz almost bankrupts the empire with spending.<br />
<br />
Lebanon- bloody climax of civil war.<br />
<br />
-1860-
in Ottoman Lebanon, Druze Muslims clash again with Maronite Christians.
Maronites were considered to be dhimmi, like Jews and Christians- 2nd
class citizens.<br />
<br />
-Lebanon: Druze Muslims massacre
Maronite Christians, killling 14,000. The violence spreads to Damascus
where Kurdish, Druze and Syrian Muslims kill 5,000 Christians and Jews.<br />
<br />
-the Vatican conducts its affairs in Lebanon through French diplomats<br />
<br />
-1861-
France intervenes and forces the Ottoman sultan to appoint an Osmanli
Christian governor for a special province or 'Sanjak' of Lebanon. As a
result the Maronite Christians are awarded a special enclave.<br />
<br />
-a
Majlis or administrative council is set up on the basis of equal
representation of Maronites, Greek Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Druzes,
Metawilas Muslims and other Muslim sects...<br />
<br />
-Britain
forces France to withdraw from Lebanon. An international commission
declares it an autonomous region. French influence is sustained,
however, through commerce, trade and religion.<br />
<br />
-1864- Lebanon is to be governed separately from Syria as an autonomous region.<br />
<br />
1864-1914-
the Ottoman province of Mount Lebanon retains semi-autonomous status.
But during this period many Lebanese Christians flee Ottoman rule or
internal violence. The links maintained between Lebanese abroad and
those still at home form an important cultural bridge between Lebanon
and Europe.<br />
<br />
-however, Muslims educated in Europe did
not form the same bonds with the west and western ways. Even Lebanese
Muslims educated abroad continued to identify with their Osmanli rulers<br />
<br />
Grand Vizier Midhat Pasha and the New Constitution.<br />
<br />
1876--Midhat
Pasha overthrows Sultan Aziz in a coup. The new sultan dies and is
replaced by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. He appoints Midhat Pasha as his
vizier. Midhat and Hamid adopt a new constitution. Belgian and French
constitutions are used as models. Universal equality before the law is
declared and a two-chamber assembly along with some decentralization of
government.<br />
<br />
-however, Midhat refuses to delegate
control of treasury, support abolition of the slave trade or allow mixed
Muslim-Christian schools.<br />
<br />
-Midhat modernizes the army with British and German advisors and armaments.<br />
<br />
1877-78-
Hamid III suspends the constitution under the pretext of a new
Russo-Turkish war. Midhat is exiled. Reformers were fired and some
imprisioned.<br />
<br />
-1878- French predominance in Lebanon is
recognized by the Berlin Treaty. Lebanese eastern Christians become a
means of French influence in the Levant.<br />
<br />
1880- Ottoman government, in debt to Europe, is bankrupted by the war with Russia. Taxes and tarrifs used to pay off the debt.<br />
<br />
-as debt is paid off, European business interests penetrate the empire, bring more western ideas, innovation and modernization.<br />
<br />
-as Hamid modernizes he turns the Ottoman empire into a police state. Tries to distract the public with an Islamic revivial.<br />
<br />
1882- settlement in Palestine by a first wave of Russian Jews in flight from pogroms in Russia.<br />
<br />
-Palestinian
peasants are impoverished under absentee landlords and Osmanli tax
collectors. Palestinian Arabs and Christians, ruled in separate
“millets” by the Ottomans, have little contact.<br />
<br />
-northern
Palestine is controlled by landlords based in Damascus and Beirut. The
southern half is populated by nomadic Bedouin who range over the region
from Jordan and Sinai<br />
<br />
-most Palestinians associate
themselves with Syria while the Husayni family takes on leadership of
Palestinian Arabs. Between 1865 and World War I, 6 of Jerusalem’s 13
mayors are Husaynis.<br />
<br />
-Arab nationalism begins to develop in opposition to Ottoman rule.<br />
<br />
1883- Hamid has Midhat and other reformers strangled in prison.<br />
<br />
-western-educated
men in the Medical academy, the army and the engineering schools,
develop an atheist, secular reform-minded movement against the sultan.
They are concentrated in the Committee for Union and Progress (CUP).<br />
<br />
-the
Ottomanists, influenced by the multiethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire,
support complete equality of all the peoples of the Ottoman empire. The
Pan Turanists declare a Turkic racial-ethnic ideology.<br />
<br />
-Kemal Ataturk, an army officer, helps found ‘Vatan’ (Fatherland), a secret society.<br />
<br />
1894- Sultan Abd al Hamid II begins the systematic killing of the Armenians.<br />
<br />
1904-14-
a second wave of Jewish settlers in Palestine- primarily intellectual
and middle class. So far there is only desire for refuge, not for a
state.<br />
<br />
-to Arabist scholars and to Arab nationalists,
Palestine is historically a part of southern Syria and as such is no
less Arab than any other Arab region in the Middle East.<br />
<br />
1907-
all Ottoman revolutionary groups from home and abroad convene at Paris
and form the middle class, liberal and nationalist Society of Union and
Progress under the auspices of the CUP.<br />
<br />
1908- the Young
Turks of CUP threaten an uprising and demand from Hamid the restoration
of the 1876 constitution. Hamid reconvenes the long defunct parlaiment
and appoints a new cabinet acceptable to the CUP. Muslims, Jews and
Christians celebrate a new area of freedom.<br />
<br />
-women discard the veil and western advisors are brought in.<br />
<br />
-the
CUP dominates the government and parliament. It becomes authoritarian
and alienates the empire with free-thinking, atheism and Turkic
ultra-nationalism.<br />
<br />
1909- 14 April- Hamid and the conservative League of Mohammed overthrow the CUP government.<br />
<br />
-in 11 days, CUP storms Istanbul, deposes Hamid and puts his brother Mehmet V on the throne. A general purge follows.<br />
<br />
-CUP’s
repressive Turkocentric rule results in rebellions all over the empire.
The Balkans are lost. Arab uprisings in Syria and Yemen. Pan Turanism
takes over. CUP wants to force all subjects to become Turks.<br />
<br />
1912- Tripoli (Libya) is lost to Italy.<br />
<br />
1913- the Young Turks of CUP consolidate their power in a coup d’etat.<br />
<br />
-1913-1918-
Ottoman empire is under the dictatorial triumvirate of Talat Bey, Enver
Pasha and Jemal Pasha. Ottoman empire is effectively a police state.
More attempts are made to westernize the military.<br />
<br />
-Enver Pasha, enamoured of Prussia, brings in German military advisors.<br />
<br />
1914- post-Ottoman Turkey retains the ‘sanjak’ of Lebanon<br />
<br />
1914- the Ottoman empire falls into alliance with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria.<br />
<br />
1915-
April- Australian and allied troops defeated by the Turks in Gallipoli
after an attempt to invade Turkey at the Dardanelles<br />
<br />
Slaughter of the Armenians<br />
April-
Turkey accuses Armenia of assisting Russian invasion. The Young Turk
government continues the policy of liquidation begun by Sultan Hamid II
in 1894, deporting 1.7 million Armenians (2/3 of the population) to
Syria and Palestine. 600,000 were either murdered or died during
transportation.<br />
<br />
April 20- Armenian rebellion centred on the fortress of Van.<br />
<br />
Aug 3-5- Russians forced by Turkish troops to withdraw from Van which is then occupied by Turkey.<br />
<br />
May 19- Russian troops relieve the Armenians at Van. But the campaign of extermination by the Turks will contonie until 1923.<br />
<br />
-the British, with the help of the Arabs, wrest Palestine from the Ottomans<br />
<br />
1917- Arabia revolts against Turkish rule with the assistance of TE Lawrence.<br />
<br />
-Baghdad and Jerusalem also rebel against Istanbul.<br />
<br />
1917- the Balfour Declaration: Britain declares support for the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.<br />
<br />
1918- Turkey is defeated on its Middle Eastern and European fronts.<br />
<br />
Oct. 18- Sultan Muhammed VI signs an armistice with the allied powers. The Ottoman empire comes to an end.<br />
<br />
1919- French troops under General Gouraud replace British troops in the Lebanon.<br />
<br />
-the British allow the Emir Faisal to be military governor of Damascus.<br />
<br />
-1919-
the US King-Crane Commission finds that Maronites want to retain close
ties with France while the Muslim majority opposes separating Lebanon
from Syria. The Commission recommends the compromise of an autonomous
Lebanese province within a larger Syrian State.<br />
<br />
1920- Aug. 10 -the Treaty of Sevres makes Syria a French protectorate and Palestine and Jordan a British protectorate.<br />
<br />
-the Turkish ‘sanjak’ of Lebanon is enlarged by the French into ‘Greater Lebanon’.<br />
<br />
-the
Lebanese Maronite Christian enclave is expanded to form modern Lebanon,
governed separately from Syria but still under French mandate. It
includes coastal Muslim regions despite Muslim protest.<br />
<br />
1920- the nationalists defy the sultan and set up a national government in Ankara.<br />
<br />
1921- the government in Ankara concludes a friendship treaty with the USSR.<br />
<br />
-the allies encourage a Greek offensive against the Turkish nationalists from Izmir.<br />
<br />
1922- the Turks capture Izmir, defeating the Greeks.<br />
<br />
1922- Turkish nationalists led by Kemal Atatutk refuse to accept the peace terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920).<br />
<br />
Nov. 1 The Turkish nationalist government deposes the Sultan.<br />
<br />
1923-
The Treaty of Lausanne. The Turks renegotiate the treaty of Sevres,
establishing the present day borders of Turkey. Greeks living in Turkey
repatriated to Greece Turks livin in Greece and Blugaria are repatriated
to Turkey.<br />
<br />
1923- 29 Oct.- Republic of Turkey founded
by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk on 6 principles: 1) republicanism 2)
nationalism 3) populism. 4) statism 5) secularism 6) reformism
(Westernization).<br />
<br />
1924- the religious Caliphate is
abolished. The constitution established democracy and universal male
suffrage. Most Islamic customs are abolished during a successful program
of westernization.<br />
<br />
1926- European codes of criminal, civil and commercial law are adopted.<br />
<br />
1927- Ataturk re-elected.<br />
<br />
1932- Turkey enters the League of nations.<br />
<br />
1931- Ataturk re-elected<br />
<br />
1934- women win the right to vote.<br />
<br />
1935- Ataturk re-elected. Turkey is almost completely modernized and westernized<br />
<br />
1938- death of Kemal Ataturk.<br />
<br />
-Ismet Inonu succeeds Ataturk.<br />
<br />
1939-1944- Turkey neutral in World War II.<br />
<br />
1945- Turkey declares war on Japan and Germany in order to join the UN.<br />
<br />
1945- President Inonu brings in relaxed rule with People’s Republican Party (RPP) and allies formation of new parties.<br />
<br />
1946- right wing Democratic Party (DP) formed.<br />
<br />
1950- the DP wins elections.<br />
<br />
1952-
abandoning neutrality, Turkey joins NATO as its easternmost member. It
has control over passage of the Soviet fleet through the Bosporus.<br />
<br />
-President Menderes (DP) liberalizes the economy and relaxes controls on Islam provoking the ire of the RPP.<br />
<br />
-Menderes
becomes authoritarian until overthrown in a coup by the army.
Henceforth the army is seen as protector of the legacy of Ataturk.<br />
<br />
1961- Inonu’s RRP is re-elected.<br />
<br />
1965- RRP is defeated in elections by Demerel of the Justice Party (JP), successor to the DP.<br />
<br />
1960s-
Rise of Islamic fundamentalism and radical Marxism. They garner support
as Turks protest the West’s discouragement of Turkish abitions in
Cyprus.<br />
<br />
1971- Military coup. Constitution of 1961 suspended.<br />
<br />
1973- military rule ends with the election of Ecevit.<br />
<br />
1974-
Turkish military invades, taking control of northeastern Cyprus.
Relations with the allies are strained and the US imposes a four year
trade embargo.<br />
<br />
1970s- minority governments prevent progress and reform, encouraging Islamic fundamentalism.<br />
<br />
1980- military takes power in a coup.<br />
<br />
1980-85- Martial law imposed.<br />
<br />
1984-
PKK- the Kurdish Worker’s party is formed. It begins a campaing of
attacks on the Turkish state and military in order to form an
independent Kurdistan.<br />
<br />
1987- the True Path party (DYP)
comes to power as successor to the JP and DP. It attempts economic
reform, tries to stop the rise of Islamism under the Welfare Party and
to put down thPKK.<br />
<br />
-Turkey plunges into an economic
crisis. Regimes of Demirel (JP) and Ciller (DYP) bring about austerity
which only strneghtens Islamic Fundamentalism.<br />
<br />
-1990- with the falll of the Sovoet Union Turkey attempts to be mother of all Turkic Islamic nations in Asia.<br />
<br />
1995- Nekmettin Erbekan elected with the Welfare Party, the largest single party, with 21.3 % of the vote.<br />
<br />
-the WP forms an alliance with Ciller’s DYP.<br />
<br />
-the WP changes into the Virtue Party (VP)<br />
<br />
1998- the court bans the WP for offences against the secular constitution. Erbekan is banned from political life for 5 years.<br />
<br />
1999- Abdullah Ocalan, leader of the PKK is captured by the Turkish military. The PKK begins to disband.<br />
<br />
1999- WP loses badly to Ecevit who applies for entry to the EU, cracks down on the PKK<br />
<br />
1999- Helsinki Conferecne- Turkey’s application is recognized pending improvements in human rights, democracy etc.<br />
<br />
2000- VP is banned by the courts.<br />
<br />
2001- Turkey protests as France recognizes victims of the Armenian genocide of_____<br />
<br />
2001- Court bans the Virtue party for anti-secular activities.<br />
<br />
2002- women achieve legal equality with men.<br />
<br />
2002-
eight ministers resing over Ecevit’s handling of the economic crisis.
Foregin Minister Cem launches new social democratic party for EU
membership.<br />
<br />
2002- legislation is passed in Ankara which
will allow Turkey to enter the EU. Abolition of death penalty and press
censorship; political and cultural rights for minority groups<br />
<br />
2002- Nov. –Recep Erdogan’s Islamic Justice and Development Party (JDP) winds landslide election.<br />
<br />
2003- Erdogan wins a seat in parliament and replaces Abdullah Gul as Prime Minister.<br />
<br />
-Turkish parliament votes not to let the US use Turkey for the invasion of Iraq.<br />
<br />
-parliament passes more on Kurdish rights and restrictions on the military to qualify for the EY.<br />
<br />
2004- PKK ends ceasefire in response to military operations against it.<br />
<br />
-EU agrees to 2005 talks on Turkish membership on condition that Turkey recognize Cyprus as member of the EU.<br />
<br />
2005- President Sezer vetos amendment on restrictions on teaching of the Koran but parliament overturns his veto.<br />
<br />
2006- spring- Kurdish protestors killed in clashes with Turkish military in southeast.<br />
<br />
2006- May- Islamist gunman shoots four to death in Turkish high court.<br />
<br />
2006- September- terrorist bombings of Turkish resorts. Kurdish Freedom Falcons claim responsibility.<br />
<br />
2006- 30 September- PKK declares unilateral ceasefire.<br />
<br />
2007-
Armenian journalist and activist Hrant Dink is assassinated. Prime
Minister Erdogan calls it an offence against democracy and freedom of
expression.<br />
<br />
April- thousands of demonstrators for secularism protest Erdgan’s decision to run again for office because of his Islamist past.<br />
<br />
April
Erdogan steps down and the AK party (JDP) has his foreign minister
Abdullah Gul run in his place. Standoff between Islamists and
secularists.<br />
<br />
May- Elections are moved up to July 22 to end the standoff.<br />
<br />
Turkish military prepares for a possible incursion into Iraq to quell PKK insurgents.<br />
<br />
July 22- AK party wins elections.<br />
<br />
October-
PPK Kurdish separatists guerillas score high casualties in an attack on
Turkish troops in the south-eastern Kurish border region.<br />
<br />
-Turkey
announces it is considering a cross-border military incursion to
neutralize PKK units in northern Iraq. The US abjects strongly to any
attempts by Turkey to destabilize northern Iraq, the relatively stable
region, strongly supported by Washington.<br />
<br />
-Oct. 11- The
US House of Representatives passes a resolution condenming the Armenian
genocide; the mass extermination and relocation of Armenians carried
out in Arenia by Turkey in 1915.<br />
<br />
-Oct. 12- The White
House, CIA boss Robert Gates and Condoleeze Rice warn that censuring
Turkey for the genocide at this time will endanger the US alliance with
Turkey, its dependence on its Turkish air base for transporting military
supplies to iraq and to Afghanistan, as well as the stibility of the
boder region in Iraqi Kurdistan.<br />
<br />
<br />
Parliament gives go-ahead for military operations in Iraq in pursuit of Kurdish rebels. <br />
Voters in a referendum back plans to have future presidents elected by the people instead of by parliament. <br />
<br />
<b>2007</b> December - Turkey launches a series of air strikes on fighters from the Kurdish PKK movement inside Iraq.<br />
<br />
<b>Headscarf dispute</b><br />
<br />
January- President Bush visits Turkey and meets with President Gul to discuss the Kurdish situation.<br />
<br />
January- Turkish war planes bomb Kurdish rebel installations on the Turkey-Iraq border. <br />
<br />
-warming of relations with Greece. <br />
<br />
<b>2008</b> February - Thousands protest at plans to allow women to wear the Islamic headscarf to university. <br />
Parliament
approves constitutional amendments which will pave the way for women to
be allowed to wear the Islamic headscarf in universities.<br />
<br />
February-
Turkish war planes continue bombing Kurdish targets in northern Iraq; a
ground attack follows. Iraq, fearing Turkish contact with Iraq's
Kurdish autonomous region, deamnds immediate withdrawal.<br />
<br />
March
8- Kurdish Iraq president Jalal Talabani visits Turkey and proposes a
"strategic relationship" involving offers of Iraqi oil.<br />
<br />
Kurdish protests inside Turkey continue as Turkey hits Kurdish targets inside Iraq, inflicting casualties.<br />
<br />
April
12- Secular Turks launch protests the ruling AK party as the party
comes under fire from a state prosecutor investigating the party with an
end to shuttign down for Islamist activities. <br />
<br />
June 6- a top court decision allows a ban to resume on head-scarves in Turkish universities.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>2008</b>
July - Petition to the constitutional court to have the governing AK
Party banned for allegedly undermining the secular constitution fails by
a narrow margin. <br />
<br />
July 14- 86 secular Turks indicted on charges of terrorism directed against the Islamic government run by the AK party.<br />
<br />
<b>2008</b>
October - Trial starts of 86 suspected members of a shadowy
ultra-nationalist Ergenekon group, which is accused of plotting a series
of attacks and provoking a military coup against the government. <br />
<br />
Sept
6- first ever visit by a Turkish leader to Armenia as crowds in Yerevan
demand Turkish recognition of responsibility for the Armenian genocide
during World War I.<br />
<br />
Dec 15- 200 Turkish writers issue an apology on the internet for Turkey's WW I massacre of Armenians. <br />
<br />
2009-
In a bid to meet EU human rights standards, Turkey posthumously
restores citizenship of national poet Nizam Hikmet (d. 1951), jailed for
being communist.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2009 </b>February -
Protesters marking the 10th anniversary of the arrest of Abdullah
Ocalan, the leader of the banned Kurdish PKK movement, clash with police
in south-east Turkey. <br />
Prominent Kurdish politician Ahmet Turk
defies Turkish law by giving speech to parliament in his native Kurdish.
State TV cuts live broadcast, as the language is banned in parliament. <br />
<br />
March 10- Turkey indicts 56 more people in ultranationalist secularist plot t bring down the AK party. <br />
<br />
March
23- Turkish president first is Turkish leader to visit Iraq in 30
years- in a bid to talk Iraqi leaders into putting military pressure on
Kurdish rebels threating Turkey.<br />
<br />
<b>2009 </b>June -
Trial starts of a further 56 people in connection with the alleged
ultra-nationalist Ergenekon plot to bring down the government. <br />
<br />
<b>2009 </b>July
- President Abdullah Gul approves legislation proposed by the ruling AK
Party giving civilian courts the power to try military personnel for
threatening national security or involvement in organised crime. <br />
PM
Tayyip Erdogan holds a rare meeting with the leader of the pro-Kurdish
Democratic Society Party, Ahmet Turk, as part of efforts to solve the
Kurdish problem politically. <br />
<br />
July 29- Turkey says it is ready to grant more rights to Kurds in an attempt to end the Kurdish insurgency. <br />
<br />
<b>Rapprochement</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2009</b>
October - The governments of Turkey and Armenia agree to normalise
relations at a meeting in Switzerland. Both parliaments will need to
ratify the accord. Turkey says opening the border will depend on
progress on resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh dispute between Armenia and
Azerbaijan. <br />
<br />
Oct 15- Turkish PM Erdogan and Iraqi PM
Maliki meet to discuss economic ties as Maliki asks Erdogan to stop
military incursions into Iraq in pursuit of Kurdish rebels.<br />
<br />
<b>2009 </b>December
- The government introduces measures in parliament to increase Kurdish
language rights and reduce the military presence in the mainly-Kurdish
southeast as part of its "Kurdish initiative". The Constitutional Court
considers whether to ban the Democratic Society Party over alleged links
to the PKK, in a move that could derail the initiative. <br />
<br />
<b>2010</b>
January - Newspaper carries report on alleged 2003 "Sledgehammer" plot
to destabilise country and justify military coup. Head of armed forces,
Gen Ilker Basbug, insists that coups are a thing of the past. <br />
<br />
-police round up 120 Al Qaeda suspects in nationwide search.<br />
<br />
<b>2010</b>
February - Nearly 70 members of the military are arrested over alleged
"Sledgehammer" plot. Thirty-three officers are charged with conspiring
to overthrow government. <br />
<br />
<b>2010 </b>March - US House
of Representatives' Foreign Affairs Committee passes resolution
describing killing of Armenians by Turkish forces in World War I as
genocide, prompting Ankara to recall its ambassador briefly. <br />
<br />
April 22- Armenia suspends tarification of US-backed peace accords with Turkey.<br />
<br />
<b>Constitutional reform</b><br />
<b>2010 </b>April
- Parliament begins debating constitutional changes proposed by the
government with the stated aim of making Turkey more democratic. The
opposition Republican People's Party says the Islamist ruling party is
seeking more control over the secular judiciary with some of the
proposals. <br />
<br />
<b>2010 </b>May - Relations with Israel
come under severe strain after nine Turkish activists are killed in an
Israeli commando raid on an aid flotilla attempting to reach blockaded
Gaza. <br />
<br />
May 14- Greece anbd Turkey whold joint cabinet
talks in Athens in order overcome ancient grievances, improve ecinomic
ties and deal with Greece's foregin debt crisis.<br />
<br />
<b>Court Indicts Almost 200 in Attempted Military Coup.</b> <br />
<br />
<b>2010 </b>July
- Istanbul court indicts 196 people, including serving and former
senior military officers, accused of plotting to overthrow the
government.<br />
<br />
PKK leader Murat Karayilan says PKK is
willing to disarm in return for greater political and cultural rights
for Turkey's Kurds. Turkey refuses to comment. <br />
<br />
<b>Islamic Government seeks greater control.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2010</b>
September - Referendum on constitutional reform backs amendments to
increase parliamentary control over the army and judiciary. Critics see
it as attempt by the pro-Islamic government to appoint sympathetic
judges.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2010</b> November - The whistle-blowing website Wikileaks
publishes confidential cables revealing that France and Austria have
been deliberately blocking Turkey's EU membership negotiations.<br />
<br />
<b>2011</b> January - The EU's Enlargement Commissioner Stefan Fuele voices frustration at slow pace of talks on Turkish membership. <br />
<br />
<b>Prime Minister Erdogan Re-elected.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2011</b>
June - Ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) wins resounding
victory in general election. PM Erdogan embarks on third term in
office.Thousands of refugees fleeing unrest in Syria stream into Turkey.
Ankara demands reform in Syria.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2011 </b>August - President Gul appoints top military leaders
after their predecessors resign en masse. This is the first time a
civilian government has decided who commands the powerful armed forces. <br />
Turkey launches retaliatory military strikes against alleged Kurdish rebels in the mountains of northern Iraq.<br />
<br />
<b>2011 </b>October - PKK rebels kill 24 Turkish troops near the Iraqi border, the deadliest attack against the military since the 1990s.<br />
<br />
Iran, Turkey agree to co-operate to defeat Kurdish militants. <br />
<br />
<b>Tensions with France over Armenian Genocide.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2011</b>
December - Relations with Paris are soured after French MPs pass bill
making it a criminal offence to deny that the mass killings of Armenians
during the Ottoman Empire amounted to genocide. Though the bill has the
backing of President Sarkozy and is approved by the French Senate, it
is later struck down by France's Constitutional Court, which rules that
it infringes on freedom of expression. <br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>January - A
court jails three people for incitement over the 2007 killing of
prominent Turkish-Armenian journalist Hrant Dink, one of them for life.
The verdict prompts protests that no one has been convicted of the
killing and allegations of state collusion in Mr Dink's death. <br />
<br />
<b>2012</b> March - Former armed forces chief Gen Ilker Basbug goes on trial on charges of attempting to overthrow the government.<br />
<br />
<b>Erdogan and Obama meet about help for Syria</b><br />
<br />
2012 Mar 25, Pres. Obama met
with Turkish leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan ahead of a nuclear security
conference in South Korea. Obama other key allies considered
providing Syrian rebels with communications help, medical aid and
other "non-lethal" assistance.<br />
<br />
<b>Erdogan support's Iran's Nuclear Ambitions.</b><br />
<br />
2012 Mar 29, Turkish PM Recep
Tayyip Erdogan voiced his country's unwavering support for Tehran's
nuclear ambitions in a meeting with Iran's President Mahmoud
Ahmadinejad. Turkey relies on Iran for 30% of its oil imports, and
has refused to go along with sanctions imposed by the US and Europe,
saying it will observe only UN-mandated restrictions on Iran.
Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei said Tehran strongly supports
reforms in Syria under Pres. Assad, but visiting Turkish PM Erdogan
said Assad can't be trusted and must step down.<br />
<br />
2012 Apr 9, Syrian forces fired
across the border into a refugee camp in Turkey, wounding at least
five people.<br />
<br />
<b>Former Officers Arrested in Anti Islamist Plot; More officers Jailed. </b><br />
<br />
2012 Apr 12, Turkish
prosecutors ordered the arrest of dozens of former military
officers, including four retired generals, over their role in
forcing the resignation in 1997 of an Islamist PM Necmettin Erbakan.<br />
<br />
2012 May 10, A Turkish court
placed in custody six active and five retired generals as part of a
widening probe into the 1997 bloodless coup that toppled the
country's first Islamist-led government.<br />
<br />
<b>Feminists Protest Abortion Law......</b><br />
<br />
2012 Jun 19, In Turkey
thousands of feminists and activists sent a petition to several
government ministries to protest a bill that would ban abortions
beyond the first six weeks of pregnancy. <br />
<br />
2012 Jul 25, Turkey sealed its
border with Syria to trucks, effectively cutting off a trade
relationship once worth almost $3 billion with the embattled nation.
A foreign ministry diplomat said 2 more Syrian brigadier generals
crossed into Turkey, bringing to 27 the number of generals who have
fled the unrest in Syria.<br />
<br />
<b>Major Operation Against Kurd</b>s<br />
<br />
2012 Aug 5, Turkey’s interior
minister said security forces have killed as many as 115 Kurdish
rebels during a major offensive over the past 2 weeks near the
southeastern town of Semdinli. Rebels fired on military posts in
Hakkari on the Iraq border triggering clashes that left dead 22
rebels, soldiers and village guards.<br />
<br />
2012 Sep 11, In Turkey a
suicide bomber threw a hand grenade and then blew himself up at the
entrance to a police station in a suburb of Istanbul. One police
officer was killed, and seven others were wounded. Police identified
the bomber as a member of the Revolutionary People's Liberation
Party-Front (DHKP-C).<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>326 Officers Convicted 2003 Coup Plot </b><br />
<br />
2012 Sep 21, A Turkish court
convicted 326 military officers, including the former air force and
navy chiefs, of plotting to overthrow the PM Erdogan’s Islamic-based
government in 2003.<br />
<br />
2012 Oct 4, Turkey's Parliament
authorized military operations against Syria and its military fired
on targets there for a second day after deadly shelling from Syria
killed five civilians in a Turkish border town.<br />
<br />
2012 Nov 6, A Turkish court
opened a trial in absentia of four former Israeli military
commanders in the killing of nine people aboard a Turkish aid ship
that tried to break a Gaza blockade in 2010.<br />
<br />
<b>Turkey Endorses Syrian Rebel Coalition.</b><br />
<br />
2012 Nov 15, Turkey endorsed
the newly formed Syrian rebel coalition as the legitimate leader of
Syria.<br />
<br />
2012 Nov 21, Turkey's
government requested the deployment of NATO's Patriot surface-to-air
missiles to bolster its defenses along its border with Syria.<br />
<br />
2012 Dec 7, The Dutch
government approved a NATO request to send two batteries of Patriot
missile defense systems to Turkey, following in Germany's footsteps.<br />
<br />
2013 Feb 11, In Turkey a car
bomb exploded at the Bab al-Hawa frontier post along Syria's border,
killing 14 people. A Syrian opposition faction later accused the
Syrian government of the bombing, saying it narrowly missed 13
leaders of the group. On March 11 Turkey’s police said five suspects
have been detained.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Turkey Slow to Join EU</b><br />
<br />
2013 Feb 25, In Turkey German
Chancellor Angela Merkel held talks with Turkish leaders amid
growing frustration in Turkey over its slow-moving EU membership and
a perceived reluctance by European nations to crackdown on Turkish
militants operating in their nations. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Left Wing DHKP Attack on Erdogan's Party HQ.</b><br />
<br />
2013 Mar 19, In Turkey
assailants fired a rocket at PM Recep Tayyip Erdogan's party
headquarters and hurled two hand-grenades at the Justice Ministry's
parking lot, wounding one person. The outlawed Revolutionary
People's Liberation Party-Front, or DHKP-C, soon said it carried out
the attacks in retaliation for a recent police crackdown on its
members.<br />
<br />
2013 Mar 22, Israel and Turkey
agreed to restore full diplomatic relations after PM Benjamin
Netanyahu apologized in a phone call for a deadly naval raid against
a Gaza-bound international flotilla in a dramatic turnaround partly
brokered by President Barack Obama.<br />
<br />
<b>Protest against trial of 275 on trial for plotting coup,</b><br />
<br />
2013 Apr 8, Turkish police used
water cannons, tear gas and pepper spray to disperse thousands of
people protesting outside a court house in support of 275 people who
are on trial for allegedly plotting to overthrow Prime Minister
Recep Tayyip Erdogan's government.<br />
<br />
2013 Apr 15, A Turkish court
convicted Fazil Say (43), a top pianist and composer, of denigrating
religion. He was given a 10-month suspended prison sentence. </div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-54675858027296235312013-09-04T08:52:00.003-07:002013-09-04T08:52:49.013-07:00Timeline and Chronology for the Histroy of Korea, 108 BC- 2103 AD<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Korea</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">TIMELINE AND CHRONOLOGY FOR THE HISTORY OF KOREA:</span><br />
<br />
108 BC- the Chinese Han occupy Korea, bringing Buddhism and Confucianism.<br />
<br />
57 BC Koguryo founded in central and northern Korea and Manchuria. Paekche was the southwest (Seoul) and Silla in the SE.<br />
<br />
-3-4th
cent. Collapse of the Han- Japanese military activity and influence
moves into the south, forming the protectorate of Kaya with influence in
Paekche in southern Korea- initiating Japanese contact with China.<br />
<br />
7th
century -Silla unites the South and founds a paid aristocracy and
bureaucracy. The small Japanese protectorates are expelled.<br />
<br />
668-
Koguryo is driven out of the South leaving a united Kingdom of Silla
protected by a wall on the north side of which is Pyongyang and the
state of Bohai whioch succeeds Koguryo.<br />
<br />
<br />
-internal divisions, due to a national parliament's restriction on monarchical power, open Korea to Chinese Tang suzerainty.<br />
<br />
-900- South Korean state of Silla is destroyed by the states of Paekche and Koguryo.<br />
<br />
-935-
a unified state is restored by diplomatic marriages, conquest and
alliance and named Koryo after a royal principality. It is ruled by a
Confucian administration; Korea faces China’s Sung dynasty as more of an
equal.<br />
<br />
11th century. Korea a tributary state of China's Sung Dynasty. <br />
<br />
-1170- General Cho Chung-hon stages a military coup. Rule by warlords ensues.<br />
<br />
1238-
Koryo falls to Mongols but is never successfully controlled. Kublai
Khan levies Korean tribute armies for ill-fated invasions of Japan.<br />
<br />
1392-
After the fall of the Mongols, General Yi Songoye overthrows the Koryo.
Litan of Korea’s new and greatest Joseon dynasty, sets up an
administrative system which will last until the 20th century. He makes
Confucianism and Chinese higher education universal. Korea opens
relations with the Ming dynasty and will be protected by China for the
next 200 years.<br />
<br />
1400s- Korean ‘Hangul’ alphabet is formed under the Joseon<br />
<br />
1419-1450- the Josean reaches its height under Sejong the Great.<br />
<br />
-the Joseon develop the powerful Yangban ruling class.<br />
<br />
16th
cent. during Joseon period Korea reaches her height in cultural
development, science, technology and Confucianism and successful use of
Chinese ideas. This period has a profound effect on modern Korea- even
its cultural, social ad political attitudes.<br />
<br />
-1592 —under Hideyoshi, Japan’s Tokugawa dynasty invades and occupies Korea, looting Korean art.<br />
<br />
1598-
Japan is finally expelled from Korea by the Joseon. Korean admiral Yo
Shun Shin, using the world's first armoured ships, beats the Japanese at
sea. But Korea will be in Japan’s zone of influence until 1790. A
historic hatred develops.<br />
<br />
-1627-1636- The Manchu take Korea as they overthrow Ming China. Korea becomes a vassal state of the Manchu.<br />
<br />
17th
cent. As a consequence of the Chinese and Japanese invasions, the
Joseon dynasty forms the Hermit Kingdom, by building fortresses,
limiting contacts with other nations, enforcing stricter border
controls, and controls in trade. This period is one of the sources for
the CHUCHE ideology.<br />
<br />
18th century: King Yongjo and then
King Chongjo maintain the old, Confucian style of Joseon Yangban rule
by appointing officials for merit rather than class or political
faction,<br />
<br />
19th cent. Europe’s use of punitive
expeditions against Korea for its mistreatment of missionaries and
adventurers only hardens the sense of isolation that began with the
Hermit Kingdom.<br />
<br />
-Korea's situation changes as a result of China's waning power and the rise of Japan.<br />
<br />
-internal disorder in court and government and expressure weakens the Korean state.<br />
<br />
-1876-
Japanese influence is secured through the signing of the treaty of
Kanghwa. Japan opens an embassy in Seoul and China, now threatened opens
a competing legation in the same ciity. y<br />
<br />
-1882-- the U.S. signs a treaty with Korea. the US, China, Japan and Russia are all competeting for Influence.<br />
<br />
-1884-
aristocratic reformers, inspired by Japanese ideas, attempt a coup
which brings Chinese and Japanese relations to the boiling point. The
crisis is headed off by a Sino-Japanese treaty whichprovides that
neither country would occupy Korea without notifying the other.<br />
<br />
-1894-
deteriorating social creations explode in the Tonghak rebellion. Korea
appeals for Chinese help in quelling the rebellion. Japan also sends
troops. The rebellion ends leaving Japanese and Chinese troops
confronting one another.<br />
<br />
-1894-5- Japan invades China, overrunning Korea.<br />
<br />
-Japan turned Korea-<br />
"into a colony, indeed, virtually a 'military camp.' When the
Japanese marched in, Koreans had, in a poet's slight hyperbole,
'nothing, neither sword nor pistol, dagger nor club' to fight back with.
Korea became 'a peacock chained by the neck.' Although collaboration
was irresistibly practical, and Koreann children had to 'endure
hardships in order to become good citizens of great Japan,' patriotism
throve during the occupation. Independence, ineffectively claimed, wwas
ecstatically anticipated. The poet Sim Hun typically promised, 'when
that day comes 'to soar like crow at night and pound the Chongo bell
with my head.'" -Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, <i>Millennium.</i><br />
<br />
-1895-
treaty of Simonoseki. Japanese victorious over China. Japan declares
Korea a "sovereign state" but remains in essential control.<br />
<br />
-Japanese influence replaces Chinese while the Japanese insist on “civilizing” reforms. But Korean absolutism returns quickly.<br />
<br />
1905-
Japan defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, leaving Japan the major
power in the region. Japan establishes Korea as a protectorate.<br />
<br />
1910-
Japan formally takes Korea and begins systematic industrialization.
During the period<br />
<br />
1910-1945, Korean nationalism develops in opposition
to Japanese attempts to extinguish Korean culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
1945- Japan defeated. Korea gains independence from Japan<br />
<br />
1945-
the Yalta Conference. Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill agree on zones
of post war occupation. In Korea, 38 degrees north would determine who
would accept the Japanese surrender: Soviets to the north and Americans
to the south.<br />
<br />
<br />
1945-
As with Berlin- Korea is divided between communist east and democratic
west. The. Industrial north is occupied by Russia while the agricultural
south is occupied by the US.<br />
<br />
1947- The UN determines
that internationally supervised elections should be held throughout
Korea. But the Soviet-occupied north refuses the idea and declares
itself The Democratic People's Repiublic of Korea. The South meanwhile
elected a government to head what it named the Republic of Korea.<br />
<br />
1948- 15 August- South Korea formaly created.<br />
<br />
SK:-
President Syngman Rhee relies on US political, military and economic
support to resist several Communist insurrections supported by North
Korea.<br />
<br />
1949- June- US troops leave SK.<br />
<br />
1950-
Backed by Stalin, North Korea invades US-occupied South Korea. The US,
with allied UN countries, occupies and defends South Korea.<br />
<br />
1953-
the Korean War ends with a Soviet-Occupied North and a US-occupied
South. The Northern Limit Line in the Yellow Sea is drawn by the UN but
1999 it will be the subject of serious disoute.<br />
<br />
<br />
SK- Rhee uses the continued communist threat from the north to impose
autocratic rule with limitations on civil rights; he is strongly
supported by the US.<br />
<br />
-Krushchev's denunciation of Stalin leads to withdrawal of Soviet backing from North Korea.<br />
<br />
1955- North Korea proclaims its Chiche ideology.<br />
<br />
1960- SK: a student uprising over electoral fraud forces resignation of Syngmman Rhee.<br />
<br />
-the
new constitution of the Second Republic of SK still limits civil rights
and insurrectionary movements continue to plot and agitate.<br />
<br />
1961-
In South Korea, a military coup led by park Chung-hee overthrows the
civilian government of Chang Myon. Park institutes military rule.<br />
<br />
1963-SK:
Park is elected head of government, leading his own Democratic
Republican Party (DRP). He institutes the Third Republic and restores
some civil rights.<br />
<br />
-Park leads massive industrial and
economic, export-led expansion. He achieves record growth rates of 10-20
per cent into the 1970s. To build the economy he exports wealth in
value-added manufactured goods and keeps wages low.<br />
<br />
1970s-
North Korea’s Communist dictator Kim Il Sung grooms his son Kim Jong Il
for the succession. They live like the secluded royalty of the medieval
Confucian Yangban class- even though feudalism and Confucianism have
been repudiated.<br />
<br />
1972- SK: Park brings back martial law and makes changes to the constitution granting himself unlimited power.<br />
<br />
1975- SK: Park brings in emergency measures.<br />
<br />
1979- Brief recession in South Korea; General Park Chung-hee is assassinated.<br />
<br />
1980- SK: Choy Kyu Ha and then General Chun Doo Hwan succeed Park as president.<br />
<br />
-SK's
industrialization finally begins to raise its standard of living as
well as capitalize on the hi-tech and computer revolution.<br />
<br />
1987- SK: massive student demonstrations against General Chun Doo.<br />
<br />
Oct- SK: a new constitution is passed.<br />
<br />
1988- international pressures around the Seoul Olympics force Chun's resignation.<br />
<br />
-first free elections in SK. Military man Roh Tae Woo succeeds Chun as president.<br />
<br />
-Roh introduces political liberalization, creates the Democratic Liberal Party (DRP) and attacks corruption.<br />
<br />
1990- first reunification talks between the two Koreas.<br />
<br />
1991- the two Koreas agree not to develop nuclear weapons.<br />
<br />
-early 1990s- North Korea working on a nuclear program.<br />
<br />
-1993-
SK: President Roh is succeeded by Kim Young Sam, a former opponent of
the regime who is the country's first non-military president in 30
years.<br />
<br />
1994- death of NK's Kim Il Sung.<br />
<br />
1996- SK: former presidents Roh Tae Woo and Chun Doo Han are indicted for corruption and fomenting the 1979 coup.<br />
<br />
1997- Succession of NK'S Kim Jong Il as supreme commander of the military and de facto head of state.<br />
<br />
1998- Kim Dae Jong elected president of South Korea. But a recession follows. His business reforms barely save the economy.<br />
<br />
-SK: in several amnesties, Kim Dae releases many communist dissidents from prison.<br />
<br />
1997-1999- Kim Dae spurs resumption of unification talks.<br />
<br />
-1998- floods, crop failures, food shortages result in famine in North Korea.<br />
<br />
-South
Korean president, Kim Dae Jong inaugurates his "Sunshine Policy" which
declares a policy of cooperation with the north on the condition of
mutual non-aggression as a prelude to eventual reinification. It also
holds that threats and sanctions on the North from South Korea and the
US do more harm the good.<br />
<br />
-June 13-15, 2000- the
leaders of North and South Korea hold historic unification talks in
Pyongyang and produce the "North-South Joint Declaration'.<br />
<br />
-increasingly, unified Korean teams participate in the Olympics.<br />
<br />
2001-2002- US President Bush declares North Korea part of the ‘Axis of Evil’.<br />
<br />
2002- North Korea is found to be developing a weapons program and expels UN weapons inspectors.<br />
<br />
2003-
North Korea withdraws from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and
reports that it has enough plutonium to build a nuclear bomb<br />
<br />
2003-2005-
meetings with the international community to retrain North Korea from
developing a weapons program. No agreement is reached.<br />
<br />
2006- after missile tests, North Korea tests a nuclear device in October. The UN imposes sanctions.<br />
<br />
Oct 31- North Korea agrees to return to nuclear talks.<br />
<br />
Feb 12-19 2007- North Korea agrees to give up its nuclear arms program in return for oil.<br />
<br />
March
28- after North Korea shows signs of reconciliation with the
international community, South Korea resumes food aid to the north.<br />
<br />
April 13- North Korea is silent on a promise to close a nuclear facility.<br />
<br />
May 10- the North Korean military agrees to a test run of rebuilt north and south Korean cross-border railway lines.<br />
<br />
May 17- North and South Korea sun ceremonial test runs cross-border railway trains.<br />
<br />
June-
for the first time since being expelled, five years ago, international
inspectors are allowed to return to the Yongbyon nucelar plant.<br />
<br />
July- international inspectors confirm the shutting down of the Yongbyon nuclear plant.<br />
<br />
August- after massive floods, North Korea appeals for aid.<br />
<br />
October- leaders of North and South Korea meet for a historic summit.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Lee Myung Bak President of South Korea.</span><br />
<br />
December: South Korea Elects Conservative Lee Myung Bak in landslide as president.<br />
<br />
2008- January- U.S. declares North Korea defaulting on declaration of nuclear activities. China urges Pyongyang to comply.<br />
<br />
February- Seoul's Historic Namdaemum gate destroyed in fire.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Lee Myung Bak takes hard line against North Korea.</span><br />
<br />
-Seoul's President Lee Mung Byak ties aid to North Korea to nucelar disarmement and improvement in human rights.<br />
<br />
-Pyongyang accepts guest performance of New York Philharmonic Orchestra suggesting thaw in relations.<br />
<br />
April-
President Lee Mung Byak of South Korea taking tough line on North
Korea; North Korea fires Southern managers from a joint industrial park.
Pyongyang fires a test missile and accuses Ming Byak of sending a
warship into North Korean waters.<br />
<br />
Lees' majority wins narrow majority in parliament.<br />
<br />
May- S. Korea removes sanctions on US beef, imposed because of BSE in 2003. Street protests erupt against removal of sanctions.<br />
<br />
June- President Lee apologizes for not taking public concerns into account as his ratings fall sharply.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Relations Improve on US with Nuclear Disarmament.</span><br />
<br />
-North Korea finally makes a declaration of its nuclear program.<br />
<br />
-July- US and North Korea hold first nuclear disarmament talks in two years.<br />
<br />
July-
U.S. beef arrives in Seoul as government responds to popular pressure
and puts further regulations in place to safeguard cosumers.<br />
<br />
-South
Korean tourist in North Korea's Mount Kumgang Special Tourism zone is
shot by North Korean police, causing tensions with the South.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea balks on Disarmament after not receiving US aid. Relations worsen with South Korea.</span><br />
<br />
-North Korea threatens to restart its nuclear program after claiming US is reneging on renewed aid in disarmament deal.<br />
<br />
October-
South Korea, aware of its large foreign debt, brings in a $130 billion
bailout package in response to the global market crash and credit
crisis.<br />
<br />
November- In response to increasing north-south
tensions, North Korea tells South Korea: as of December 1, halt all
cross-border traffic into the north.<br />
<br />
-December- North Korea slows down disarmament as US suspends energy aid.<br />
<br />
2009- January: North Korea declares an end to all military and political agreements with South Korea as relations deteriorate.<br />
<br />
February- South Korea brings in rock bottom interest rates in anticipation of worsening credit crisis.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea Carries out Nucelar and Rocket tests, raising tensions.</span><br />
<br />
April- North Korea tests a rocket; in response to international objections, it walks out of disarmament talks.<br />
<br />
May- Kim Jong Il makes first public appearance since rumours of his illness in 2008.<br />
<br />
-North Korea carries out underground nuclear test, cuaing international protest.<br />
August- death of Kim Dae-jung, former South Korean president. North Korea sends a senior delegion to pay respects.<br />
<br />
-June- North Korea suggests re-starting talks on joint industrial park with South.<br />
<br />
-August- UN Security Council votes to impose sanctions on North which threatens retaliation through nuclear war.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Pyongyang attempts to improve relations with South. </span><br />
<br />
-North Korea announces easing up crossborder traffic and agrees to continue formerly suspended cross-border familuy reunions.<br />
<br />
October-
North Korea apologizes for the breaking of a dam on the Imjin River
which killed campers downstream in South Korea and discusses flood
prevention with the South.<br />
<br />
-through China, Pyongyang suggests it might be willing to restart disarmament talks.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Dispute heats up on Disputed Area of Sea Border. </span><br />
<br />
November-
North and South Korean war ships exchange fire across a disputed border
area known as the Northern Limit Line in the Yellow Sea. Drawn in 1953
at the end of the Korean war, the North insists that it should be
further south.<br />
<br />
December- US envoy ontains understanding from Pyongyang on need for six-party talks on its nuclear disarmament.<br />
<br />
2010-
January- North Korea accepts first consignment of food from the South
in two years, makes peace overtures to US and South Korea.<br />
<br />
-failure of two days of talks about the North-South Kaejong industrial estate, the first in two years.<br />
<br />
-artillery fire from North Korea near disputed sea border ignites return fire from South Korea.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea Sinks South Korean Ship. </span><br />
<br />
March- South Korean war ship Cheonan believed sunk by North Korean navy.<br />
<br />
May- South Korea confirms sinking of war ship Cheonan by North Korea. North Korea denies it.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>South Korea Cuts Ties With North.</b> <br />
<br />
-South
Korea cuts all ties with North. The after, North Korea allows workers
to return to the North-South joint industrial park which remains aan
important source of revenue for North Korea.<br />
<br />
June- North Korean government meets to approve a re-allocation of cabinet seats.<br />
<br />
-South Korea: Lee Myung-bak's Grand National party suffers defeats in local elections.<br />
<br />
<b>US Sanctions against North Korea over the Cheonan.</b> <br />
<br />
July- the US, in continued response to the sinking of the Cheonan, imposes additional<br />
sanctions on North Korea.<br />
<br />
-the
US and South Korea plan naval meouevres in the area in response to the
Cheonan incident. North Korea threatens to reply with nuclearweapons.<br />
<br />
August- Kim Jong Il visits China in hopes of resuming six-party talks. <br />
<br />
September- Kim Jong Il appears to be grooming his son, Kim Jong Un to succeed him.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>The North Attempts to Placate the South. </b><br />
<br />
<b>2010</b> September - As US President Obama signs new
sanctions into law, t<b>he North makes overtures to the South,</b> including an
offer of more family reunions and acceptance of flood-damage aid.<br />
<br />
Kim Jong-il's youngest son Kim Jong-un is appointed to senior political
and military posts, fuelling speculation that he is being prepared to
succeed his father. <br />
<br />
November-
North Korea allows a visiting US scientist to visit the nation's new,
state of thecentrifuge, suggesting imminent nuclear capability, causing
alarm in Tokyo and Washington.<br />
<br />
<b>Cross Border Clashes Continue.</b> <br />
<br />
-after South Korean
military manoeuvres, North Korea shells a South Korean island,
provoking threats of string retaliation from South Korea.<br />
<br />
<b>2010</b> November - <b>North Korea</b> shows an eminent visiting
American nuclear scientist a vast new secretly-built facility for
enriching uranium at its Yongbyon complex. The revelation sparks alarm
and anger in Washington, Seoul and Tokyo. <br />
<br />
<b>2010</b>
November - Cross-border clash near disputed maritime border results in
death of two South Korean marines. North Korea's military insists it did
not open fire first and blames the South. South Korea places its
military on highest non-wartime alert after shells land on Yeonpyeong
island. <br />
<br />
<b>2011</b> February - <b>North Korea- </b>Foot and mouth disease hits livestock, threatening to aggravate desperate food shortages.<br />
<br />
<b>2011 </b>July - Nuclear envoys from North and South Korea hold first talks since collapse of six-party talks in 2009.<br />
<br />
<b>2011 </b>August - Further exchange of fire near Yeonpyeong island.<br />
<br />
<b>2011 </b>October - US Congress approves
long-stalled free trade agreement with South Korea. The deal is expected
to increase US exports to South Korea.<br />
<br />
<b>Death of Kim Jong Il; Succession of Kim Jong Un. </b><br />
<br />
<b>2011</b> December - Kim Jong-il dies. Kim Jong-un
presides at his funeral, is hailed as "Great Successor" and takes over
from his father as chairman of the National Defence Commission.<br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>February - Kim Jong-il is posthumously
awarded the highest military title of Generalissimo - the same rank held
by his father, Kim Il-sung.<br />
<br />
Army pledges loyalty to his successor, Kim Jong-un, in a mass parade held to mark the 70th anniversary of Kim Jong-il's birth.<br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>March - South Korea hosts a global
conference on nuclear security, attended by the US and Russian leaders
among others. Iran and North Korea do not attend. <br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>April - Kim Jong-un formally takes over ruling party leadership, becoming First Secretary of the Workers Party.<br />
<br />
<b>North Stages Long Range Missile Test.</b> <br />
<br />
The launch of a "rocket-mounted satellite" to mark the
birthday of Kim Il-Sung fails. Most observers think it was a long-range
missile test of the sort that North Korea had agreed to suspend in
return for US food aid. North Korea says it is no longer bound by the
agreement, which also banned nuclear tests.<br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>April - South Korea: the governing conservative
Saenuri (New Frontier) Party, formerly called the Grand National Party,
wins parliamentary elections with a reduced majority.<br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>June - South Korea becomes the first major Asian economy to halt oil imports from Iran. <br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>July - South Korea begins move of most
ministries to "mini capital" at Sejong City, 120km south of Seoul. Key
ministries will remain in Seoul.<br />
<br />
<b>2012</b> July - Army head Ri Yong-ho is removed from
senior posts in the ruling party, and leader Kim Jong-un appoints
himself to the highest rank of marshal.<br />
<br />
<b>North Korea needs food after Devastating Floods. </b><br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>August - The United Nations says North Korea has asked for urgent food aid after devastating floods in July.<br />
<br />
<b>Dispute Over Islands by South Korea and Japan.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>August - Lee Myung-bak becomes South
Korea's first president to visit the Liancourt Rocks, which Japan also
claims. Tokyo recalls its ambassador in protest. <br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>October - Days after South Korea and the US unveil
a new missile deal, North Korea says it has missiles that can hit the
US mainland.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>Arms race between North and South Korea.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>October - South Korea strikes deal with
the US to almost triple the range of its ballistic missile system to
800km as a response to North Korea's test of a long-range rocket in
April. <br />
<br />
<b> South Korea Eelects a new President, a woman- Park Geun-hye</b><br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>December - South Korea elects its first female president,<b> </b>Park Geun-hye. She takes office in February.<br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>December - A North Korean rocket launch puts a
satellite into orbit, after the failure to do so in April. The UN
including China regard this as a violation of a ban on North Korean
ballistic missile tests, as the rocket technology is the same.<br />
<br />
<b>North Korea Stages a Third nuclear test- allegedly aimed at US.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2013 </b>January - The UN Security Council
condemns the December launch. North Korea announces it will carry out a
third "high-level nuclear test" and rehearse more long-range rocket
launches aimed at the US "arch-enemy". The previous two tests were
conducted in 2006 and 2009.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2013</b> January - South Korea launches a
satellite into orbit for the first time using a rocket launched from its
own soil. Previous attempts in 2009-10 failed. The launch comes weeks
after a North Korean rocket placed a satellite in orbit.<br />
<br />
<b>2013</b> February - North Korea carries out a third nuclear test, said to be twice as big as the 2009 test. <br />
<br />
<b>UN Approves more Sanctions against North Korea; North Korea on War Footing. </b><br />
<br />
<b>2013</b> March - UN Security Council approves fresh
sanctions over North Korea's nuclear test, targeting cash transfers and
travel for diplomats. North Koreas threatened the US with a pre-emptive
nuclear attack and issues threats to South Korea over nearby islands and
non-aggression pacts.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<b>2013 </b>March - South warns North over
unilateral abrogation of Korean War armistice and bellicose rhetoric.
North also cut off a hotline and vowed to end non-aggressions pacts with
South. A cyber-attack from an internet address in China temporarily
shuts down the computer systems at South Korean banks and broadcasters. <br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-15469096126849835172013-09-03T18:15:00.002-07:002013-09-04T08:43:44.371-07:00France Gives US Full Support for Intervention in Syria.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<br />
<b><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSgXL1dv7Fcfecwgm5UkHx4xGL24LBY0ilaBmVOqquPl52SNEYtMw" data-sz="f" name="0q7ZeEqlKVtpKM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSgXL1dv7Fcfecwgm5UkHx4xGL24LBY0ilaBmVOqquPl52SNEYtMw" style="height: 176px; margin-left: -8px; margin-right: -9px; margin-top: 0px; width: 265px;" /> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN BRIEF: </span><a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2012/12/the-syrian-civil-war-is-palimpsest.html">Cultural and historical ties with Syria</a> may have inspired France to support armed intervention against the Assad Regime. France, after all, ruled her Syrian colony from 1920 to 1946 and French influence in the regions goes back for centuries.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN THE NEWS:</span> AFTER THE FRENCH CLAIM THEIR OWN EVIDENCE THAT <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/08/western-nations-consider-intervention.html">CHEMICAL WEAPONS WERE USED BY SYRIA'S ASSAD REGIME</a>, PRIME MINISTER JEAN-MARC AYRAULT VOWS FULL SUPPORT FOR US INTERVENTION. <br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>THE FACTS: </b></span><br />
<br />
-in Syria and Lebanon, until 1946, France was the main European power and the original force of secularization, modernization and westernization.<br />
-the primary European language was and still is French and the primary the European culture in the region is still French and Catholic.<br />
-Lebanese Christians still look to France rather than to the Arab world.<br />
<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/08/same-nations-in-syrian-standoff-two.html"> -like most former colonial powers, the French have preserved economic, cultural or historic</a><br />
<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/08/same-nations-in-syrian-standoff-two.html">links to their former colonies and links remain strong in Lebanon if less so in Syria.</a><br />
-as a colonial power, France manipulated sectarian tensions in Lebanon and Syria for her own benefit.<br />
-as with other former colonial powers there is with France a tacit recognition of responsibility for colonial injustices and legacies of ethnic division.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>IN HISTORY:</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">-</span>1536-
Francis I of France and the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman I, sign a treaty of
capitulations concerning permanent French trading settlements in the
Levant and Turks trading in France; free trade and freedom of religion
in one another's countries. Right to be tried in court by one's own
consul or nationals. The agreement is renewable upon expiry.<br />
-1854-
under threat of war, Napoleon III forces the Ottoman Sultan to
recognize France as protector of the Christians in the Levant. In this
he had British support against the ambitions of Russia in the Middle
East.<br />
-1920-
as part of the Sevres settlement between the allies and the Ottomoan
empire at the end of World War I, Syria comes under French mandate.<br />
1930-1939-
the French put down several rebellions in Syria while trying to
establish their mandate and alienate much of the population.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">RELEV</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">ANT DATES</span>:</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Early French Contact with the Levant.</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">-</span>1536-
Francis I of France and the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman I, sign a treaty of
capitulations concerning permanent French trading settlements in the
Levant and Turks trading in France; free trade and freedom of religion
in one another's countries. Right to be tried in court by one's own
consul or nationals. The agreement is renewable upon expiry.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1585-1635- Fakhr al Din, Druze leader in Lebanon conducts his own foreign policy and invites Christian missionaries.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1600-1900-
Lebanese tribal chiefs encourage French Catholic missionaries to
develop education in the country. Rome-educated Maronite priests return
to Lebanon and spread western ideas.<br />
<br />
<b>Increase of French Interests in the Levant: in religion and trade.</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1649-
Ottoman Sultan issues a decree allowing France's Louis XIV to protect
the Maronites. French clergy and French-educated Maronite priests begin
to influence political institutions.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
-18th century. The French form close trade relations with Ottoman Syria.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1736-
with Ottoman approval, France becomes protector of the Maronite
Christians. The Church of Rome grants the Maronites recognition.<br />
<br />
<b>French Support of Invasion by Secularizing Egyptian Viceroy Muhammad Ali. </b> <br />
1831-40- Egyptian occupation of Syria and Palestine by rebellious Ottoman Viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali. Because Ali is a
protege of France, France refuses to help the Sultan. Ali wins Cilicia,
Palestine and Syria. <br />
-Mohammed Ali invites the French Jesuits to set up in Lebanon where the Jesuits become protectors of the Maronite Christians.<br />
</div>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Lebanese Civil War of 1840-1861.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
-Maronites were considered to be dhimmi, like Jews and Christians- 2<sup>nd</sup>
class citizens. Prompted by French potection of the Maronites,
Lebanon's Ottoman rulers incite the Druzes to move against the
Maronites.</div>
-1854-
under threat of war, Napoleon III forces the Ottoman Sultan to
recognize France as protector of the Christians in the Levant. In this
he had British support against the ambitions of Russia in the Middle
East.<br />
<br />
<b>The Crimean War.</b> <br />
-The Sultan begins, however, to give in to Russian pressure to restore
Russia as the guarantor of Christianity and the Holy Places of the
Middle East. In the end, the Sultan sides with Engand and France. In
response, Russia occupies neightbouring Ottoman provinces of Wallachia
and Moldovia under the prestext of protecting Russian Orthodoxy. The
Russian action sparks the Crimean war.<br />
-1853-1856 Crimean War. British and French Defeat the Ottomans. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">End of Lebanese Civil war. Special Status for</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">the Province of Lebanon.</span><br />
-1860- in Ottoman Lebanon, Druze Muslims massacre Maronite Christians.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1861-
France intervenes and forces the Ottoman sultan to appoint a Christian
governor for Lebanon. As a result the Maronite Christians are awarded a
special enclave.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1864-1914- the Ottoman province of Mount Lebanon retains semi-autonomous status.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">1919 - putative King of Syria, Emir Feisal. backs Arab self-rule at the
Versailles peace conference, following the defeat of Germany and the
Ottoman Empire in World War I </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Sept.- the British make way for a French mandate in Syria. Feisal,
according to a deal with French president Clemenceau allows for French administration despite
popular Syrian demands for sovereignty.</span></div>
-1920-
as part of the Sevres settlement between the allies and the Ottomoan
empire at the end of World War I, Syria comes under French mandate.<br />
1920<b> </b>June - San Remo conference splits up Feisal's
newly-created Arab kingdom by placing Syria-Lebanon under a French
<br />
1920 August - France proclaims a new state of Greater Lebanon. <br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">-the French exploit sectarian tensions.</span></div>
mandate, and Palestine under British control.<b> </b><br />
1920<b> </b>July - French forces occupy Damascus, forcing Feisal to flee abroad.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">-as French intentions become clear, the new Sunni nationalism intensifies.</span> <br />
-the Turkish ‘sanjak’ of Lebanon is enlarged by the French into ‘Greater Lebanon’.<br />
<br />
<b>French Divide and rule.</b> <br />
1922 - Syria is divided into three
autonomous regions by the French, with separate areas for the Alawites on
the coast and the Druze in the south.<br />
1928 - Elections held for a constituent assembly, which
drafts a constitution for Syria. French High Commissioner rejects the
proposals, sparking nationalist protests. <br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
1930-1939-
the French put down several rebellions in Syria while trying to
establish their mandate and alienate much of the population.<br />
1936 - France agrees to Syrian independence but signs an agreement maintaining French military and economic dominance dependence in principle.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">World War II.</span><br />
1940 - World War II: Syria comes under the control of the Axis powers after France falls to German forces.
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
1941- Britain and the Free French liberate Lebanon from Vichy France.</div>
</div>
1943- the National Pact settles differences between Muslims and Christians.<br />
1943- The French and the British send a joint expedition to Syria to keep it out of Nazi control.<br />
1945 - Protests over the slow pace of French withdrawal. <br />
1946 - Last French troops leave Syria.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria Becomes Independent</b> <br />
1946- Syria attains independence from France. <br />
<br />
<b>Lebanese Civil War.</b> <br />
1983- Oct.
23- -Multinational Peace Troops suffer simultaneous bomb attacks,
killing 230 US marines in a marine barracks and 58 French paratroopers.
Hezbollah militant Imad Mughaniyah is suspected.<br />
<br />
<b>Falling out between Syria and Lebanon</b> <br />
-Syria's complicity in the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Hariri polarizes Lebanon between nationalist Sunnis and the Shia militia Hezbollah which supports Syria. Tensions rise between Lebanon and Syria. <br />
<br />
<b>Syria and Lebanon Restore Relations.</b><br />
<br />
2008- July 12- France's President Sarkozy brokers an agreement by which Syria and Lebanon will restore diplomatic relations.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br /></div>
<br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-56987380453061667132013-09-02T18:00:00.002-07:002013-09-06T08:04:09.195-07:00Syria: A Timeline of Congressional Approval in US Decisions to Intervene or Declare War.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<b>The United States. </b><br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="3RfByYgFsykm8M:" 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" 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<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN BRIEF: </span>American military interventions have been carried with and without congressional approval, with and without the facts being made public, with and without explicit declarations of war.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN THE NEWS:</span> PRESIDENT OBAMA TAKES THE CASE FOR A PUNITIVE MILITARY STRIKE ON SYRIA TO CONGRESS.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>THE FACTS: </b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b> Congressional Approval. </b></span><br />
-US military operations and invasions have been ordered with and without congressional approval. According to the constitution, the president can order military operations, in rare cases of urgency and gravity, without consulting Congress. However, presidents have sometimes acted unilaterally without any such conditions. <br />
<br />
-the use of 'Declaration of War' in the US Constitution is vague and and many believe it is implicit in an any US government authorization of the use of military force against another nation.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b> </b></span><br />
<br />
<b>America's Defensive Wars.</b><br />
-the
First and Second World Wars and the invasion of <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/06/us-taliban-talks-to-begin-on-shaky.html">Afghanistan </a>(in the
wake of 9/11) are the United States' only truly defensive wars.<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<br />
-the<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/09/timeline-and-chronology-for-histroy-of.html"> Korean</a> War and the Gulf War against Iraq were in defense of the United Nations.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b> </b></span><br />
<br />
-the<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/03/maghreb-history-1550-bc-to-present.html"> Tripolitan Wa</a>r of 1801-1805 and the War of 1812 were largely about trade and maritime law.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><br />
<br />
-the
United States occupied Haiti and Nicaragua because those countries had
defaulted on international loans but the United States had murkier
interests as well.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><br />
-the <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/08/timeline-and-chronology-of-united.html">Mexican War and the Spanish American War</a> were essentially wars of territorial acquisition by the United States.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><br />
-the CIA's covert Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba was in a sense an extension of the Spanish American War.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
-American aims in the invasions of Grenada and Panama are debatable. The
War in Vietnam and the 2003 US invasion of Iraq had little real
justification.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
-the US-led NATO bombing of Kosovo was a unilateral NATO humanitarian action taken without United Nations approval.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>IN HISTORY:</b></span><br />
<br />
THE KOREAN WAR.<b> AUTHORIZED BY THE U.N.- CONGRESSIONAL FUNDING BUT NO CONGRESSIONAL VOTE</b><br />
1950-
Backed by Stalin, North Korea invades US-occupied South Korea. The US,
with allied UN countries, occupies and defends South Korea.<br />
<br />
<br />
THE INVASION OF GRENADA.<b> NO DECLARATION OF WAR AND NO CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b><br />
1983
- The US under President Ronald Reagan invades Caribbean nation of Grenada,
partly prompted by its concerns over the island's ties with Cuba.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">RELEVANT DATES</span>:<br />
<br />
THE TRIPOLITAN OR BARBARY WARS- <b>CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL BUT NO DECLARATION OF WAR.</b><br />
1801-1805-
war between the US and the Karmanli Dey of Tripoli (present day Libya) about the amount of tribute US
shipping should pay to the Dey for protection from pirates. The US settles the issue by invading Tripoli.<br />
1815- the US ends the paying of tribute or protection against piracy once and for all in a war with Algiers.<br />
<br />
THE WAR OF 1812- <b>DECLARATION OF WAR WITH CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b><br />
1812-15
- War of 1812 between the US and Britain, partly over the effects of
British restrictions on US trade and Britain's boarding and searching US ships for deserters during the Napoleonic Wars.<br />
<br />
THE MEXICAN WAR<b> - DECLARATION OF WAR WITH CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b><br />
1846-May 8, The US invades Mexico to protect the
independence of Texas which had separated from northern Mexico. The
first conflict of the Mexican War occurs north of the
Rio Grande River at Palo Alto, Texas when United States troops under
the command of Major General Zachary Taylor rout a larger Mexican
force. Zachary had been ordered by President Polk to sieze
disputed Texas land settled by Mexicans<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1860-61
- Eleven pro-slavery southern states secede from Union and form
Confederate States of America under leadership of Jefferson Davis,
triggering civil war with abolitionist northern states.</span> <br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1861- the firs shots of the war are fired by Southern troops on the Union held fort, Fort Sumter, in South Carolina.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR- <b>DECLARATION OF WAR WITH CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">1898- </span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">April 22, 1898 - The blockade of Cuba begins when the</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"> United States Navy aids independence forces within Cuba. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Several days later, the U.S.A. declares war on Spain, backdating its declaration to April 20. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">On May 1, 1898, the United States Navy destroyed the Spanish fleet</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"> in the Philippines. On June 20, the U.S. captured Guam.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">1898, May 12- San Juan, Puerto Rico is bombed by the American navy </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">under the command of Rear Admiral William T. Sampson. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Puerto Rico is overtaken by the United States between July 25 with its landing at </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Guanica Bay and August 12. These acts during the Spanish-American War would </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">ultimately result in Spain deciding in December to cede lands, including Puerto Rico, </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: large;">to the United States.</span> </span></pre>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">BANANA WARS</span>- <span style="font-size: large;"><b>A SERIES OF MILITARY INTERVENTIONS WITHOUT DECLARATION OF WAR OR CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">1912-1928 August 14 - The United States Marines are ordered</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">to Nicaragua and elsewhere in Central America to protect </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">what are said to be American interests.</span></pre>
<br />
THE FIRST WORLD WAR. <b>-DECLARATION OF WAR WITH OVERWHELMING CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b><br />
1917- February 3- The United States government cuts
diplomatic ties with Germany. The Zimmerman Telegram is given
to
the United States by Britain on February 24, showing the offer by
Germany to give Mexico back the southwest United States if they would
declare war on the United States.<br />
<br />
1917-18 - US intervenes in World War I, rejects membership of League of Nations.<br />
<br />
THE SECOND WORLD WAR - <b>-DECLARATION OF WAR WITH OVERWHELMING CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b><br />
1941 -
Japanese warplanes attack US fleet at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii; US
declares war on Japan; Germany declares war on US, which thereafter
intervenes on a massive scale in World War II, eventually helping to
defeat Germany.<br />
<br />
THE KOREAN WAR.<b> AUTHORIZED BY THE U.N.- CONGRESSIONAL FUNDING BUT NO CONGRESSIONAL VOTE</b><br />
1950-
Backed by Stalin, North Korea invades US-occupied South Korea. The US,
with allied UN countries, occupies and defends South Korea.<br />
<br />
THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION OF CUBA- <b>SECRETLY AUTHORIZED BY THE WHITE HOUSE.</b><br />
1961 - Bay of Pigs invasion: an unsuccessful attempt to invade Cuba by Cuban exiles, organised and financed by Washington. <br />
<br />
THE WAR IN VIETNAM-<b> OVERWHELMING</b> <b>CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL BUT NO DECLARATION OF WAR.</b><br />
1962- February 7- The first sign of a
looming Vietnam conflict emerges when President Kennedy admits that advisers already in Vietnam would engage the enemy if fired
upon. The sending of these advisers acted as a compass-point of
no return and there was no turning back once they took this crucial step which would inevitably lead
the country into this conflict. Many believe that this day was the day that step was taken.<br />
<br />
THE INVASION OF GRENADA.<b> NO DECLARATION OF WAR AND NO CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL.</b><br />
1983 - The US under President Ronald Reagan invades Caribbean nation of Grenada, partly prompted by its concerns over the island's ties with Cuba.<br />
<br />
THE INVASION OF PANAMA<b>. CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL BUT NO DECLARATION OF WAR.</b><br />
1989
- US troops invade Panama, oust its government and arrest its leader,
one-time Central Intelligence Agency informant General Manuel Noriega,
on drug-trafficking charges. <br />
<br />
THE GULF WAR- <b>AUTHORIZED BY TH U.N.- MODERATE CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL (CLOSE VOTE IN THE SENATE) BUT NO DECLARATION OF WAR.</b><br />
1990- August 2, 1990 - Iraq invades its neighbor, Kuwait, setting into motion
the beginning of U.S. involvement in the Gulf War. Four days
later, the United Nations begins a global trade embargo against
Iraq. On November 29, the United Nations passes a resolution,
#678, stating that Iraq must withdraw its forces from Kuwait by January
15, 1991 or face military intervention.<br />
1991 <b>-</b> US forces play
dominant role in war against Iraq, which was triggered by Iraq's
invasion of Kuwait and ended with the expulsion of Iraqi troops from
that country.<br />
<br />
<br />
BOSNIAN WAR- <b>AUTHORIZED BY THE U.N.- CONGRESSIONAL FUNDING BUT NO CONGRESSIONAL VOTE </b><br />
U.N. intervention to stop the Serbian massacres of Bosnians and other campaigns of ethnic cleaning by Serbia and Croatia.<br />
<br />
1999- January- Serbs driving out Kosovars through mass murder or ethnic cleansing. NATO bombs Serb Positions in Kosovo.<br />
1999-
24 March- 10 June- NATO, led by US NATO forces, launches air strikes,
destroying government offices, bridges over the Danube, and power
stations. The Serbs are forced to withdraw from Kosovo.<br />
<b><br /></b>
THE 9/11 ATTACKS AND THE INVASION OF <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/06/us-taliban-talks-to-begin-on-shaky.html">AFGHANISTAN</a>- <b>NO DECLARATION OF WAR BUT OVERWHELMING CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL</b>.<br />
2001
11 September - Coordinated suicide attacks on various high-profile
targets, prompting the US to embark on a ''war on terror'' which
includes the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. <br />
<br />
2001 October
- US leads massive campaign of air strikes against Afghanistan and
helps opposition forces defeat the Taliban regime and find Saudi-born
dissident Osama Bin Laden, who is suspected of masterminding the 11
September attacks.<br />
<br />
THE IRAQ WAR- <b>MODERATE CONGRESSIONAL APPROVAL BUT NO DECLARATION OF WAR.</b><br />
2002-2003- The
United States, searching for a pretext to invade Iraq as part of a
Middle Eastern democracy project, attempts to gain United Nations
approval by claiming that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein has concealed
Weapons of Mass Destruction, namely agents used in bacterial or chemical
warfare. United Nations inspectors find no such weapons. The United
States then invades Iraq unilaterally. <br />
<br />
2011- CIVIL WAR IN LIBYA- <b>AUTHORIZED BY THE U.N.- CONGRESSIONAL FUNDING BUT NO CONGRESSIONAL VOTE</b><br />
No fly zone and air support for Libyan rebels fighting the Qaddafi regime in U.N. operation led by France, the United States and Britain. <br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>(With help from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_war_by_the_United_States</i>)</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-27975835701972565792013-09-01T18:00:00.003-07:002013-09-06T07:58:51.532-07:00Canada's Senate: Timeline and Chronology for the History of the Senate and Senate Reform.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> <b>The Senate</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="UtbjYeySbvUy0M:" 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" style="height: 173px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -7px; margin-top: 0px; width: 260px;" /> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>History of the Canadian Senate and Senate Reform.</b></span> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">This chronology is based on</span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> <i>A Legislative and Historical Overview of the Senate of Canada
</i></span></span></b><br />
<i><span style="font-size: small;">Committees and Private
Legislation Directorate</span><span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Revised May 2001</i>:<i> </i><br />
<i>http://www.parl.gc.ca/About/Senate/LegisFocus/legislative-e.htm </i>and:<br />
<i>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Canada</i><br />
<br />
<i> </i>Origins of the Senate. <i><br /></i><br />
-With the exception of British Columbia, all of the British
North American colonies had bicameral or two chamber
legislatures before 1867. It was from these pre-Confederation
Legislative Councils, particularly that of the United
Province of <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/05/timelinechronology-for-history-of-canada_29.html">Canada </a>(the union in 1840 of Upper Canada
[Ontario] and Lower Canada [Quebec] ) that the model. The Legislative Council of Prince Edward Island had
been elective since 1862 and that of the Province of Canada
since 1857. However, there was not a great deal of enthusiasm
for an elected second chamber. for the
Senate was taken.<br />
<br />
<i> </i><br />
<i> </i>Senate not to Originate Money Bills.<i> </i> <br />
1840- Section 57 of the <u>Union Act, 1840</u> which
had constitutionally united Upper and Lower Canada into the
United Province. Section 57 of the <u>Union Act</u>
removed any doubt as to where money bills were to originate: "57.
All Bills for appropriating any Part of the
Surplus of the said Consolidated Revenue Fund, or for
imposing any new Tax or Impost, shall originate in the
Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada." This was to
last as a limitation on the powers of the Senate in the Constitution
Act, 1867.<br />
<br />
The Quebec Conference begins founding of the Senate.<br />
-1864-
Oct 10- The Quebec Conference passes a resolution to form a Canadian
senate. The formal origins of the Canadian Senate "emerged from the
Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences of 1864 which met to
consider proposals for a union of the British North American
colonies. Much of the Quebec Conference was devoted to
creating an upper house...Various proposals
for its method of selection were considered, including direct
election. <br />
-Nova Scotia would have ten Senators, New Brunswick ten and
Prince Edward Island four. The record of the discussions
which took place at the Quebec Conference shows that the
Prince Edward Island delegates argued vigorously that the
only safeguard the smaller Provinces would possess was in
the Senate and raised the demand for equal representation
for all the provinces in the Upper House. This position,
MacKay writes "was farther than other Maritime delegations
were prepared to go" P.E.I. alone
dissented from the Quebec agreement and refused to come
into the new federation. In order to retain the equality of
sectional representation, the twenty-four maritime members
were divided equally between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia<br />
<br />
Constitution Act, 1867<br />
1867- of the Senate: George Brown said it was the key to federation, "the very
essence of our compact". "Our Lower Canadian friends have
agreed to give us representation by population in the Lower
House, on the express condition that they would have equality
in the Upper House. On no other condition could we have
advanced a step"<br />
-in a limitation on the power of the senate, Section 53 of the
<u>Constitution Act, 1867</u> directs that money bills
are to originate in the House of Commons.<br />
-Quebec
was given equal representation in the Senate with Ontario -
twenty-four seats. Section 24 of the <u>Constitution
Act, 1867</u> provided for a special representation in
the case of Quebec: "each of the twenty-four Senators
representing that Province shall be appointed for one of
the twenty-four electoral districts of Lower Canada ... "<br />
-the Senate is charged with the right to grant divorces.<br />
-in the first Canadian cabinet, five of the
thirteen ministers were senators.<br />
1867- Nov. 16- The first sitting of the Senate. The first Senate Speaker is Joseph
Edouard Cauchon. During the session, three Standing
Committees are appointed: Banking, Commerce and Railways,
Contingent Accounts, and Standing Orders and Private Bills.<br />
<br />
Development of Parliamentary Privilege.<br />
1868- the Senate and parliamentary privilege: "In 1868 the Canadian Parliament enacted a law which gave to
each of the houses, in almost the identical words used
above, the powers, immunities, and privileges enjoyed by
the British House of Commons at the time of passing the
British North America Act, "so far as the same are
consistent with and not repugnant to the said Act." A
further section stated that these were part of the general
and public law of Canada and "it shall not be necessary to
plead the same, but the same shall in all Courts in Canada
and by and before all judges be taken notice of
judicially". The act also protected the publication of any
proceedings against civil or criminal suit if these were
published under the order or authority of the Senate or
House of Commons. This was followed in the same year by an act professing to
give to the Senate or to any select committee on private
bills of the Senate or of the House the power to examine
witnesses on oath.<br />
Senate Seats for New Provinces.<br />
1870 - Entry of Manitoba. The <u>Manitoba
Act</u> provides for the addition of two Senators for
that province.<br />
1871 - Entry of British Columbia. The <u>British
Columbia Terms of Union</u> awards three Senate seats
to B.C.<br />
Powers of Canadian Parliament to be Identical to British powers. <br />
1873- on parliamentary privilege: the power to examine witnesses
on oath was extended to any committee of either house. This
latter act was disallowed by the British government on the
ground that it was <i>ultra vires</i>, in that it tried to
give powers to the Canadian houses which were not possessed
in 1867 by the British House of Commons. The earlier act
had been, in fact, <i>ultra vires</i> also, although it had
been allowed to stand.<br />
1873- When Prince Edward Island entered Confederation pursuant to
the <u>Prince Edward Island Terms of Union,
1873</u>, it did so on the terms and conditions of the
Quebec resolutions. Senate representation was therefore
readjusted to ten Nova Scotia seats, ten New Brunswick
seats and four from P.E.I.<br />
1874 - The British Government replies that it could
not advise Her Majesty to comply with the request of Prime
Minister Alexander MacKenzie to appoint extra Senators
pursuant to Section 26 of the <u>Constitution Act,
1867</u>.
<br />
1875-an
amendment to the British North America Act, which repealed
the original section 18 and substituted another to the
effect that the privileges, immunities, and powers of the
Canadian Parliament and its members were never to exceed
those enjoyed from time to time by the British House of
Commons.<br />
1875- The first major legislative confrontation
between the Senate and House of Commons. The Senate rejects
a bill for the construction of a railway from Esquimalt to
Nanaimo in British Columbia.
<br />
1876- on privilege: Inasmuch as the British House of
Commons in 1871 had given to its committees the power to
examine witnesses on oath, the Canadian Parliament was able
in 1876 legally to endow its committees with the same
power.
<br />
1879 - The "Northwest Territories" of the time were
given two seats in the Senate, a figure which was doubled
in 1903.
1889 <b> </b><br />
<br />
<b> </b>Evolution of the Senate <b><br /></b><br />
1879<b>-</b> Creation of the Senate Standing Committee on
Divorce.
<br />
1891-two governments in the
nineteenth century were led by Senators, Sir John Abbott
(1891-92) and Sir Mackenzie Bowell (1894-96). Nearly every
major portfolio except that of Finance has been held at one
time or another by a Senator.<br />
1894 - Creation of the Standing Committee on
Internal Economy and Contingent Accounts.<br />
1905 - Entry of Alberta and Saskatchewan. These
newly-created provinces each obtain four seats.
<br />
1907 (circa) -Originally, the Senate was composed of
72 members, but increased as the country geographically and
demographically grew in size. In the first forty years
of Confederation, a series of arrangements to provide
representation to Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward
Island, Alberta and Saskatchewan brought a total number of
Senate seats to eighty-seven. <br />
1913 - Senate defeats Naval Assistance Bill saying
"This House is not justified in giving its assent to the
bill until it is submitted to the judgement of the
country."<br />
<br />
Constitution Act, 1915. <br />
1915<b> -</b> Passage of the <u>Constitution Act,
1915</u> which reorganized and rationalized the basis
of representation by creating a fourth division, the
Western division, composed of the provinces of Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, each
represented by six Senators. The same act provided for the
awarding of six seats in the Senate to Newfoundland when it
entered Confederation, which it did in 1949.
<br />
1915- the number of senators increased to 96.<br />
<br />
Senate May Amend Money Bills. <br />
1918- May 9- "the Senate has historically taken the
position that it has the constitutional right to amend (but
not increase) money bills sent up from the House of Commons.
<u>The Report of the Special Committee Appointed to
Determine the Rights of the Senate in Matters of Financial
Legislation</u> (the Ross Report) tabled in the Senate."<br />
<br />
Eligibility to sit in Senate makes Women "Persons." <br />
1930 - "Persons Case" decision by the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council in Edwards v. Attorney
General for Canada ([1930] A.C. 124) confirming the
possibility of appointing women to the Senate. On February
14, 1930, Mrs. Cairine MacKay Wilson, daughter of the late
Senator MacKay of Ontario, was summoned to the Senate,
becoming Canada's first woman Senator.<br />
1931
- Statute of Westminster grants British dominions complete autonomy.
The Statute of Westminster authorizes the Balfour Report (1926),
granting Canada full legislative authority in both internal and
external affairs. <br />
1949- the number of senators is increased to 102.<br />
<br />
Newfoundland. <br />
1949- Newfoundland entered Confederation only in 1949, pursuant
to the <u>Newfoundland Act</u>, which confirmed the
Terms of Union between the province and Canada. The Terms
of Union provided for representation in the Senate by six
members.<br />
<br />
Process of Senate Reform. <br />
1965- in what was the first significant step towards
Senate reform, <u>The Constitution Act, 1867</u> was
amended so that all Senators appointed after that date were
to retire at age 75.<br />
1968- the Senate no longer allowed to grant divorces. Since
1968, the authority for granting divorces rests with all
provincial courts.<br />
1968-69 <b>- </b>Restructuring of Senate Committees.
Foreign Affairs replaces External Relations, and Health,
Welfare and Science replaces Immigration and Labour.
Creation of the Standing Senate. Committee on Legal and
Constitutional Affairs. Major revision undertaken to Senate
Rules.<br />
<br />
Appointment of First Woman Speaker. <br />
1972 <b>-</b> Appointment of the first woman Speaker,
Muriel McQueen Ferguson.
<br />
-during the 1970's, Senate impact on Commons legislation was
principally to be found in recommendations emanating from
pre-study committee reports made to bills in advance of their
coming before the Senate. Such pre-study of the 1975
Bankruptcy Bill led to almost 140 amendments being proposed.
<br />
1974- the number of senators is increased to 104.<br />
<br />
Senate Confronting House of Commons. <br />
-during the latter 1980's and the 1990's, the Senate became
more active in formally opposing and amending Commons
legislation. Among the more controversial bills which led to
confrontation between the Senate and House of Commons were
the following: <b>(i)</b> in 1985, Bill C-11, the Borrowing
Authority Bill; <b>(ii)</b> in 1986, Bill C-67, the "gating"
amendments proposed to the Penitentiary Act; <b>(iii)</b> in
1987, Bill C-22, the Drug Patent Bill and Bill C-84, the
Immigration Bill; <b>(iv)</b> in 1988, Bill C-60, the
Copyright Bill, Bill C-103, the Atlantic Canada Opportunities
Agency Bill and Bill C-130, the Free Trade Bill; <b>(v)</b>
in 1989, Bill C-21, the Unemployment Insurance Act
amendments; <b>(vi)</b> in 1990, Bill C-28, the "clawback"
Income Tax Bill and Bill C-62, the Goods and Services Tax;
<b>(vii)</b> in 1991, Bill C-43, the Abortion Bill, which was
defeated at third reading; <b>(viii)</b> in 1996, Bill C-28,
the Lester B. Pearson International Airport Bill, which was
also defeated at third reading; and, <b>(ix)</b> in 1998,
Bill C-220, the profit from authorship respecting a crime
Bill, which was defeated at report stage.<br />
1975- Pursuant to the
<u>Constitution Act, 1975</u>, the two territories
were entitled to be represented in the Senate by one member
each. Like the Province of Newfoundland, they were not
added to an existing region but treated as an exception to
the sectional divisions.<br />
<br />
Consent of Provinces Required to Reform Senate. <br />
1979 - On December 21, 1979 in <u>Re: Authority
of Parliament in Relation to the Upper House
[1980]</u>, 1 S.C.R. 54, the Supreme Court rules that
Parliament cannot fundamentally alter the Senate in virtue
of section 91(1) of the <u>B.N.A. Act, 1867</u>. In
this Bill C-60 reference, the Supreme Court confirmed that
the consent of the provinces was necessary for the reform
of the essential elements of the Constitution and the
powers of the Senate.
<br />
1993- The Nunavut
Act of 1993 separated the new Territory of Nunavut from
the Northwest Territories and granted it representation in
the Senate by one member.
<br />
1999- the number of senators is increased to 105.<br />
<br />
Senate Powers Limited by a Repatriated Constitution. <br />
1982 - Passage of the <u>Constitution Act,
1982</u>. Under the new amending formula, the Canadian
Parliament is given exclusive authority to amend the
provisions of the Constitution of Canada in relation to the
Senate. A more demanding formula governs amendments
affecting the Senate's powers, selection of Senators, the
number of Senators by which a province is entitled, and the
residency conditions to be met by Senators. In these areas,
amendments may be made by proclamation of the Governor
General authorized by resolutions of the Senate, the House
of Commons and the legislative assemblies of seven
provinces representing 50% of the population of all of the
provinces. The <u>Constitution Act, 1982</u>
provides that for constitutional amendments the Senate has
only a suspensive veto of 180 days. In the absence of
Senate agreement, the House of Commons has only to wait 180
days and then adopt the constitutional amendment a second
time.
<br />
1982- section 47(1) of the <u>Constitution Act, 1982</u>
provides that amendments to the constitution can be made
without the consent of the Senate.<br />
<br />
New Senate Rules under Meech Lake. <br />
1987 - The 1987 Meech Lake Accord contains a
provision regarding vacancies in the accord. The proposed
new procedure could guarantee that no person would be
appointed to the Senate who was not acceptable to both
levels of Government. The political accord accompanying the
proposed <u>Constitution Amendment, 1987</u>
contains a commitment ensuring that the new nomination
procedure for Senators is to take effect forthwith upon
signature of the accord and prior to the proclamation of
the amendments. The provisional procedure is to apply until
there are constitutional amendments regarding the Senate
generally or until the Accord fails to be ratified. Six
Senators are appointed pursuant to this accord. In 1990,
time expires for the ratification of the Accord.<br />
1989 - Creation of the Standing Senate Committee on
Aboriginal Peoples.<br />
<br />
Outgoing Prime Minister Mulroney Stacks the Senate with Patronage Appointments
<br />
1993- -A few weeks prior
to leaving office, Mr. Mulroney filled the fourteen vacancies
in the Senate with 13 Conservatives and one Independent. As a
result, in 1993 Prime Minister Chrétien's Liberal caucus of
41 Liberals faced 58 Conservatives and 5 Independents<br />
2001 - Creation of the Standing Senate
Committee on Human Rights and of the Standing Senate
Committee on Defence and Security.<br />
<br />
Recent Moves Toward Senate Reform. <br />
2005- NDP and Bloc Quebecois called for abolition of Senate.<br />
2006-2009- Prime Minister Harper and his Conservatives repeatedly introduced and amended senate reform bills which kept dying. <br />
2008- -under Harper's Conservatives a large number of vacant seats were left unfilled until just after the prorogation
during the 2008 Canadian parliamentary dispute when Harper filled the
remaining seats rather than risk seeing them filled by any incoming
coalition government. Among his new appoinrtees were Mike Duffy and Pam
Wallin. (Wikipedia)<br />
2010- during its national convention, the Green Party calls for a senate elected by proportional representation.<br />
<br />
Senate Expenses Sacandal<br />
2013-Senators Mike Duffy and Pamela Wallin embroiled in the Senate Expenses Scandal.<br />
2013,-the NDP appears to begin to embrace senate reform as a compromise,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Canada#cite_note-28"></a></sup> before returning to a pro-abolition platform, including a pro-abolition website, www.RollUpTheRedCarpet.ca. </div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-45749919192887930442013-08-30T08:41:00.000-07:002013-09-02T10:12:28.124-07:00Syria: A History of US Decisions to Intervene or Declare War in Other Conflicts.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<b>The United States. </b><br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="3RfByYgFsykm8M:" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,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" 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<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN BRIEF: </span>Of all the humanitarian interventions that the US has helped to enforce, the prospect of a Syrian operation bears only a passing resemblance to the major strike on Libya against Qaddafi with UN and NATO support- but bears most resemblance to the U.S.-led NATO intervention against Serb atrocities in Kosovo, where action was taken without the UN. However in this case any sort of NATO-led mission would have to go ahead without Britain. If the US goes it alone, there will be uneasy reflections on the unilateral arrogance of the Bush 2003 invasion of Iraq.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN THE NEWS:</span> AS A BRITISH PARLIAMENTARY VOTE BACKS
DOWN ON MILITARY ACTION IN SYRIA, AND EVEN AS AS FRANCE PROMISES TO
SUPPORT U.S. ACTION, PRESIDENT OBAMA DITHERS ON A VARIETY OF OPTIONS, ALL OF WHICH SEEM BAD. THE PROBLEM IS, HE IS COMPELLED TO STRIKE, OR HIS 'RED LINE' ON THE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS WILL LOOK RIDICULOUS AND THE U.S. WILL LOSE PRESTIGE.
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>THE FACTS: </b></span><br />
<br />
-the First and Second World Wars and the invasion of Afghanistan (in the wake of 9/11) are the United States' only truly defensive wars.<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<br />
-the Korean War and the Gulf War against Iraq were in defense of the United Nations.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b> </b></span><br />
<br />
-the Tripolitan War and the War of 1812 were largely about trade and maritime law.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><br />
<br />
-the United States occupied Haiti and Nicaragua because those countries had defaulted on international loans but the United States had murkier interests as well.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b></b></span>
-the Mexican War and the Spanish American War were essentially wars of territorial acquisition by the United States.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b></b></span>
-the CIA's covert Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba was in a sense an extension of the Spanish American War.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b></b></span>
-American aims in the invasions of Grenada and Panama are debatable. The War in Vietnam and the 2003 US invasion of Iraq had little real justification.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b></b></span>
-the US-led NATO bombing of Kosovo was a unilateral NATO humanitarian action taken without United Nations approval.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>IN HISTORY:</b></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<br />
THE WAR IN VIETNAM. <br />
1962- February 7- The first sign of a
looming Vietnam conflict emerges when President Kennedy admits that advisers already in Vietnam would engage the enemy if fired
upon. The sending of these advisers acted as a compass-point of
no return and there was no turning back once they took this crucial step which would inevitably lead
the country into this conflict. Many believe that this day was the day that step was taken.<br />
<br />
KOSOVO<br />
1999- January- Serbs driving out Kosovars through mass murder or ethnic cleansing. NATO bombs Serb Positions in Kosovo.<br />
1999-
24 March- 10 June- NATO, led by US NATO forces, launches air strikes,
destroying government offices, bridges over the Danube, and power
stations. The Serbs are forced to withdraw from Kosovo.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">RELEVANT DATES</span>:<br />
<br />
THE TRIPOLITAN WAR.<br />
1801-1805-
war between the US and the Karmanli Dey of Tripoli (present day Libya) about the amount of tribute US
shipping should pay to the Dey for protection from pirates. The US settles the issue by invading Tripoli.<br />
<br />
THE WAR OF 1812<br />
1812-15
- War of 1812 between the US and Britain, partly over the effects of
British restrictions on US trade and Britain's boarding and searching US ships for deserters during the Napoleonic Wars.<br />
<br />
THE MEXICAN WAR <br />
1846-May 8, The US invades Mexico to protect the
independence of Texas which had separated from northern Mexico. The
first conflict of the Mexican War occurs north of the
Rio Grande River at Palo Alto, Texas when United States troops under
the command of Major General Zachary Taylor rout a larger Mexican
force. Zachary had been ordered by President Polk to sieze
disputed Texas land settled by Mexicans<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1860-61
- Eleven pro-slavery southern states secede from Union and form
Confederate States of America under leadership of Jefferson Davis,
triggering civil war with abolitionist northern states.</span> <br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1861- the firs shots of the war are fired by Southern troops on the Union held fort, Fort Sumter, in South Carolina.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR.</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">1898- </span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">April 22, 1898 - The blockade of Cuba begins when the</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"> United States Navy </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">aids independence forces within Cuba. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Several days later, the U.S.A. declares</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"> war on Spain, backdating its declaration to April 20. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">On May 1, 1898, </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">the United States Navy destroyed the Spanish fleet</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"> in the Philippines. On June 20, </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">the U.S. captured Guam.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">1898, May 12- San Juan, Puerto Rico is bombed </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">by the American navy </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">under the command of Rear Admiral William T. Sampson. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Puerto Rico is overtaken by</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"> the United States between July 25 with its landing at </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Guanica Bay and August 12. These acts during </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">the Spanish-American War would </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">ultimately result in Spain deciding in December </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">to cede lands, including Puerto Rico, </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: large;">to the United States.</span> </span></pre>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">NICARAGUA</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">1912- August 14 - The United States Marines are ordered</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"> to Nicaragua due to its default on loans to the United States and its European
allies.</span></pre>
<br />
THE FIRST WORLD WAR.<br />
1917- February 3- The United States government cuts
diplomatic ties with Germany. The Zimmerman Telegram is given
to
the United States by Britain on February 24, showing the offer by
Germany to give Mexico back the southwest United States if they would
declare war on the United States.<br />
<br />
1917-18 - US intervenes in World War I, rejects membership of League of Nations.<br />
<br />
THE SECOND WORLD WAR.<br />
1941 -
Japanese warplanes attack US fleet at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii; US
declares war on Japan; Germany declares war on US, which thereafter
intervenes on a massive scale in World War II, eventually helping to
defeat Germany.<br />
<br />
THE KOREAN WAR. <br />
1950-
Backed by Stalin, North Korea invades US-occupied South Korea. The US,
with allied UN countries, occupies and defends South Korea.<br />
<br />
THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION OF CUBA <br />
1961 - Bay of Pigs invasion: an unsuccessful attempt to invade Cuba by Cuban exiles, organised and financed by Washington. <br />
<br />
THE WAR IN VIETNAM. <br />
1962- February 7- The first sign of a
looming Vietnam conflict emerges when President Kennedy admits that advisers already in Vietnam would engage the enemy if fired
upon. The sending of these advisers acted as a compass-point of
no return and there was no turning back once they took this crucial step which would inevitably lead
the country into this conflict. Many believe that this day was the day that step was taken.<br />
<br />
THE INVASION OF GRENADA. <br />
1983 - US invades Caribbean nation of Grenada, partly prompted by its concerns over the island's ties with Cuba.<br />
<br />
THE INVASION OF PANAMA<b> </b><br />
1989
- US troops invade Panama, oust its government and arrest its leader,
one-time Central Intelligence Agency informant General Manuel Noriega,
on drug-trafficking charges. <br />
<br />
THE GULF WAR<br />
1990- August 2, 1990 - Iraq invades its neighbor, Kuwait, setting into motion
the beginning of U.S. involvement in the Gulf War. Four days
later, the United Nations begins a global trade embargo against
Iraq. On November 29, the United Nations passes a resolution,
#678, stating that Iraq must withdraw its forces from Kuwait by January
15, 1991 or face military intervention.<br />
1991 <b>-</b> US forces play
dominant role in war against Iraq, which was triggered by Iraq's
invasion of Kuwait and ended with the expulsion of Iraqi troops from
that country.<br />
<br />
<br />
KOSOVO<br />
1999- January- Serbs driving out Kosovars through mass murder or ethnic cleansing. NATO bombs Serb Positions in Kosovo.<br />
1999-
24 March- 10 June- NATO, led by US NATO forces, launches air strikes,
destroying government offices, bridges over the Danube, and power
stations. The Serbs are forced to withdraw from Kosovo.<br />
<b><br /></b>
THE 9/11 ATTACKS.<br />
2001
11 September - Coordinated suicide attacks on various high-profile
targets, prompting the US to embark on a ''war on terror'' which
includes the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. <br />
2001 October
- US leads massive campaign of air strikes against Afghanistan and
helps opposition forces defeat the Taliban regime and find Saudi-born
dissident Osama Bin Laden, who is suspected of masterminding the 11
September attacks.<br />
<br />
THE IRAQ WAR<br />
2002-2003- The United States, searching for a pretext to invade Iraq as part of a Middle Eastern democracy project, attempts to gain United Nations approval by claiming that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein has concealed Weapons of Mass Destruction, namely agents used in bacterial or chemical warfare. United Nations inspectors find no such weapons. The United States then invades Iraq unilaterally. <br />
<br />
<br />
2011- CIVIL WAR IN LIBYA- <b></b><br />
No
fly zone and air support for Libyan rebels fighting the Qaddafi regime
in U.N. operation led by France, the United States and Britain. </div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-90764830742615887482013-08-29T08:24:00.000-07:002013-09-06T08:22:15.875-07:00Same Nations in Syrian Standoff Two Centuries Ago.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
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<br />
<u>Syria: The Obligation to Protect is Nothing New.</u><br />
<br />
Hugh Graham, August 29, 2013.<br />
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In 1876, the British public cried out for the protection of Serbs being slaughtered by their Ottoman rulers. Prime Minister Disraeli decided against it: he felt that Britain needed the Ottoman empire as a bulwark against Russia. <br />
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As the United States moves war ships closer to Syria; as France touts evidence for a poison gas attack by Syria's Assad government on its own people, and Britain clamours for intervention, the challenge seems simpler than Disraeli's: merely to protect the Syrian people from atrocities committed by its own government.<br />
<br />
In the region, the diplomatic use of the verb "to protect" is old: it has grown like a plant as big and as ancient as the cedars of Lebanon.The West has expressed the same thing in the same region, though in different ways, over centuries. The present concern of<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/04/europe_13.html"> Europe</a>, and Europe's cultural extension, the <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/08/timeline-and-chronology-of-united.html">United States </a>and<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/05/timelinechronology-for-history-of-canada_29.html"> Canada</a>, plays upon a deep and sometimes murky political unconscious.<br />
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<br />
In the nineteenth century, Europe showed concern for the rights of the "djimmi" or
"people of the book" in the<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/07/syria-lebanon-timeline-to-may-2013.html"> Levant</a>: the Jews and Orthodox, Catholic and Maronite
Christians who were second class citizens under Ottoman rule. France was concerned to protect the Maronite Christian minority in Lebanon which it had sponsored and educated. Britain decided to protect Lebanon's Druze Muslims from their Maronite enemies, as a counterweight to French influence.<br />
<br />
The confused and doddering <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/09/timeline-for-history-of-turkey-and-for.html">Ottoman Empire</a> gave first the French, then the British and then the Russians, and then both the British and the Russians the exclusive right to protect the holy places of Christianity. Russia wanted to protect fellow Slavs in the Balkans from their Ottoman masters. Disraeli's British public demanded the protection of Serbs from the Ottomans. More recently, Europe and the United States have helped to protect the state of Israel. They tried to protect peoples and interests during the Lebanese Civil war but were forced out. And presently they have worked to protect the democratic uprising in Libya and stood by unable to protect the Arab Spring anywhere else.<br />
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Back in 19th century there was quite another use of the word "protect" in the same region. Britain and France wanted to protect their trade with the Levant. Britain wanted to protect her eastern Mediterranean sea route to British India first from French and then from Russian ambitions. Russia wanted to protect naval access to the Mediterranean from British interference. Europe wanted to protect the Balkans from Russian ambitions. <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/08/timeline-and-chronology-for-history-of_12.html">Russia</a> wanted to protect the Balkans from both Europe and from Ottoman Turkey. Almost everyone sought protection from one another by using the Ottomans as a buffer. All that protecting usually coincided with the the protection of certain peoples and ethnic groups. <br />
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It might be said that this time it's different, that the Western urge to intervene is purely humanitarian. But the same actors are still there and in some ways doing the same things. Is it purely a coincidence? Not entirely. The geography hasn't changed. Moreover, humanitarianism is mostly a western and somewhat Christian idea- at its most noble and its most ridiculous.<br />
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Does it coincide with more practical interests as it did before? The United States and especially Europe want to protect themselves from the Islamist Syria that glowers on the horizon. Or at least the failed state and launching pad for anti-western terrorism that Syria will certainly become if the West can't find a way of controlling the civil war or waging the peace. Russia wants the same thing- but with Assad still in power because, like Russia, he is suspicious of democracy, he is secular, he is Russia's long-time client and he guarantees Russian naval access to the Mediterranean.<br />
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So if there is Western intervention in Syria, it will not be an entirely holy war. And of course it never was. And even if it may be a little bit holier this time, it will be much, much messier.</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-86824837049017601452013-08-28T18:42:00.004-07:002013-08-28T18:43:31.731-07:00The Syria Vacuum- How Middle Eastern Ultranationalists view their countries' Georgraphic Heritage.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
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<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
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<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN BRIEF: "</span><b>Irredentism"</b> (from Italian <i>irredento</i>, "unredeemed") is any position of a state advocating annexation<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation"></a> of territories administered by another state<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_%28polity%29" title="State (polity)"></a> on the grounds of common ethnicity<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity"></a> or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. (Wikipedia)<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
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<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>THE FACTS: </b></span><br />
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-Syria lies at the heart of the "Greater Syria" of Syrian nationalists and at the heart of the "Greater Iraq" of Iraqi nationalists. The southwestern corner of Syria is part of the Zionist vision of a "Greater Israel." Northern Syria would be included in a Greater Kurdistan or home country for the Kurds. An emirate, imagined by Al Qaeda (which recognizes no modern borders) would combine Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. <br />
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The maps below suggest the aspirations of extreme nationalists or "irridentists" in various Middle Eastern nations should the region erupt in serious, all-out conflict:<br />
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<img alt="" class="rg_hi uh_hi" data-height="175" data-width="288" height="175" id="rg_hi" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSL657OEBAwcpjXIGVQxMmfwqJa5bl4QVAO64CRwXVcWjG4d0h5Uw" style="height: 175px; width: 288px;" width="288" /><br />
<br />
The Umayyad Caliphate (cira 700 AD)- The Syrian capital, Damascus, was the seat of the Umayyads, the first Islamic Caliphate. Some in Al Qaeda and Al Nusra would doubtless dream of seeing such a Caliphate spring once again from Syria but of course that would have to be a failed state, a Syria in ruins.<br />
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<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRt-HvkijzHXaZEC9DmIo6C9i-OpiJkP1NpCReIR8jWGoFgQxJx" data-sz="f" name="1PelUC-Pb3QwXM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRt-HvkijzHXaZEC9DmIo6C9i-OpiJkP1NpCReIR8jWGoFgQxJx" style="height: 176px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 254px;" /> <br />
<br />
Greater Syria- "Greater Syria" or "Bilad al-Sham." According to the wesbite, Geocurrents, "Advocates of a Greater Syria dream of uniting all of the historically
Arabic-speaking lands of the eastern Mediterranean. The broadest claims,
with the maximal ideological justifications, are advanced by the Syrian
Social Nationalist Party (SSNP). The SSNP has designs on a vast
territory, encompassing not just the lands of the eastern Mediterranean,
but also all of Iraq and significant parts of Iran and Turkey."<br />
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<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="56OBee4NDWKEtM:" 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" 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The United Arab Republic was a scheme more or less forced on Egyptian president Abdul Nasser in order to prevent a Communist takeover in Syria. It lasted from 1958 to 1961 before its collapse. The idea of unifying Syria with Egypt oddly coincides with the ancient Egyptian empire which stretched from Egypt, through Palestine to Syria.<br />
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<img alt="Map of Greater Iran from the Arab Atlas" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-3325" height="206" src="http://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Arab_Atlas_Map_Greater_Iran-300x206.jpg" title="Arab_Atlas_Map_Greater_Iran" width="300" /><br />
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Greater Iran- For Iranian ultra-nationalists, Greater Iran would embrace all ethnically Iranian and Farsi-speaking peoples. It approximates the empire of the Persian Sassanids in 600 AD. A greater Iran which erased Israel and controlled all of Palestine would conform more or less to the Persian empire at its greatest extent in about 500 BC.<br />
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<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="IH4k0izrHMg1jM:" 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cN2duRnbjOM84zxnGcZiNbjfZZ4L/T+/r/qd8njr5dN+Ot/Frrreur632I1RpQUturAwCevHXOfGfSYJpOOPdz0fX5d73Ou0a1O41rUanc77d978+u3dJUZAQEBAQECLS+wnyr9BAlgICAgICAIgcPbeh7+iyvxK+r4esOV+7IEiz4/eY5qkxTTm5b/DP4Z+U9J+uuser5NrMpprPAtaifcod2Hu57v+cxMMTFLT9Hy8YL4PeUv3ieX7b2oZ04S6eosyr5sBn4nE88dLXCcLfiMtaRE6mdbiN685+kdX270f7LfTVCprmtwfVJGNo/dHJOPiZtYcc468szt9Hmy1vy6iekamZncz6zqI+XbfnMz1WUlQkBA4u1+yqtTWa7lDKenmDj2gfAzi+Ot41KbBnvhmZr2npMT1iY8pj9+j4x6Zegt2jJdM2U54YdV8g48D4e/+Up3pNO/bzR5uAplj3nC/WveY9Y/ij/yjx33eQnLIICBbdn+jOrvUNXQxVs7SSqb8YBFe8jecnGFz/IzuKTKStLT1fSj2FqdTYll2murdrVr1FeOFwo+1qsGQ1ZAY/wCEjGW4Jr8Rwk2yRbznr6KnFcFa+WL9es9fRY+k/oHYty/qlZNbAA5cHa3iTu5C+Pj9BOeI4G3NHuo6OOK9m2i8e5jp8196Pdj26Ss1WMhOcjYOBkDPJA3c+OP/ABf4XDbDTlmdvoIrTHjpjrO+WNb1y7jczHTc9evWd9fnuZtJZeEBAQEBAQItL7CfKv0ECWAgICAgSadwGBPQGBN2hTtbPgfr4wOWB879NvRnU7j3VJat7DaChzy6qNpXqMEOeOMOPLjMz4LRaeWvSZ2543go4mkZcV455+KLTEfDERExM9J3Eddzvm34dvL9mejWptsVO6sUE8sykBR4sc4lemK9p1EKOH2RljJ/vxy1jv1id+Oo1M7me243Ed5fXezexqKFUV1qCoxvIBc+ZLYzNemKlI1ENe/E5LRyROq/wx0iPp/fvPeervkiAgICAgYZQRggEHqDyD90PYmYncd3y701/Rwcm3RrweWq5zn/AAeY93h7/CnkwzXrXrCxlx4uM3NpimTz7Vt8/wCG3r2nx1PWfnl/ZGoQ4emxSRkblI+shm0R3U59kcZ4Y5n5at+dZlFpNDZa61ovrOwUZ4GScZJPQeZnsTEzraH/APP4qJ64rfyz+j13bJqfVCvfsoqCULZguBXUAhcBeWyQzf5pBltF8nfp2ZfETzZdT0jt9n3X0XaltPW1Fz21lFUM5JPqDZyCBhuOeB0mrjmJrGp3DZxTWaRyzuFvO0jm1unDDPiBx7/dAqCICAgICAgIEWl9hPlX6CBLAQEBAQECwpfvKyv94D/0f9oHCUOcdDnEDo7RwGAHgoEDlgICAgICAgICAzBpH3Cfur+AnnLHkk97k/in7ype3fRii6l1rqqSwj1WVQvOQcEqPHGPvlfNw1L1nliIlarxl8n+3xF5tSYmJ3PNrca3G+0x38Ozm/RjemnZ9MdSlm87kQJarK4Hrg71A6AcZ6rIeFyUifd83X6sPDrh8tuHtb8UT21MfvcdY846w+jy+vECq7Rpw2R0P1gckBAQEBAQItL7CfKv0ECWAgICAgIGyOQcjrAt2oVyrfA/H4wJLKg2cgcwKW6sqSDA0gICAgICAgICAgIHKezqd27uq92c7ti5znOc4znPjI5w45nmmsb+SX32T+KXpNNeGA55wMyREmgaW1hhgwOG7s7j1Tn3GBwGAgICAgRaX2E+VfoIEsBAQEBAQECx7Ls4K+XI+/8A5/OB3wOXX6fcMjqP5+6BUwEBAQEBAQEAIGNHp77K0cCob0Vsbm43AHHs++BN/Z9/lV/E39MB/Z9/lV/E39MDerSahTkd1/E39MDs33/uVfxt/RAzvv8A3Kv42/ogN9/7lX8bf0QIL6LW611A+Ydv6OYHN/Z9/lV/E39MB/Z9/lV/E39MCY02IpPdVHAJ5dj0/wDzgRWMnkwyAcAjAyoPiPfA5NL7CfKv0ECWAgICAgICBJRaVYEQLtWyMjxgZgVPaFG05HQ/yPlA5YCAgICAgIAQLPsT/wCNR/2a/wDQIHbA+X9uauquvU22BH1yam07X1BovVFsf9VGlGx9xatacKF2sWbdk5EDr13pBq1XvDfsrfW6qndihFpXT3XJWostG3c+xcl8+zgAE5gc13pnqQ2m3Wojt+pK9e2tVf8AWLFWxwHJtcbXDDaFCnglsGBzab0m1dKVoLwxVWYFzWDdadVcj6dtwLMVC1jbX6w70Z8BA9VodXdbotbdZaTk6tEQKqisUW31DDAbmJCLkk9RxiBTf29elVjHUGtEvp0yDZVhQdJRcbGttICNl3G5iR0G0kiBW2em+q/VGubUpU6VWmnKow1Tpqr6ivI5ISqskJjmzdwuBA+sQItV7DfKfpAo7T0+RP8AQIEel9hPlX6CBLAQEBAQEBAQLLsy7I2nw6fCB3QNbEDAg9DAomHMDEBAQEBAQAgb2dp/qvZov27+60qvtzt3bawcZwcfhPJnUbeTOo28b6P/AKXhqtTTR+qFO9sCbu9zjPjjYM/jIq5otOtIaZ4tOtPdW9qV98UFTuUdUexVDLW7qrKjHO4eq6EkAgBwSRJk7C9v6MgYvpILEe0OT6pJ+Hroc9MMD4wNavSLRuu7vqwMOcsQMLWX3kk9AO6c8+CE+BgZHpBo8E99Vweeeck7cY67s8Y68jzECRu3tIMjv6uFDH1h0baQffneh/zr5iBqe3tHg/bVYBAPI68jHvPqMPdsI8IEfbNult09iWEPU5Wp9h6d/tAywPq5FqnPk2YEyekOkPIvrxtLZzxgDcTn4An4c9IE6a2u6lnqdXXDjKnIyuQy+4gggjwIgVF3h8if6BA10vsJ8q/QQJYCAgICAgICBtVYVII8IF3TZuAIgbwODV6Ekll/D8oFcYCAgICAgBAkbs0ans4UFiot0qoWAyRurAyBPJjcaeTG408l2F+iOrS6iq9dTYxqcOFKKAceBIMjriiJ2irgis7eyv7BDWO4uuVLWV7alKhXZUVMltu9QVSsEKwBCdOWzKmcqeiVW2wNbc5emygsxryK3VVCjagHqheCQTyc5gQaj0H07liz2HctgPFX/UFgBDd3uG0WsBg84G7d4hP2l6Mixkau6yt1sdtw2EgW2JY+0MhGc1qBkEYJ68YDFXofSpXFl2xWR1rym0WJs+0zt3EkIAQTt5JAB5gbaX0UrS86gWWs+8sA3d4GTYdu4IGYDvGxuJIGBAx2Z6LpXpF0zEgd53h2HgEWixa1LD2EASsceyg6QI9V6GU2WJYbbvUA2rmvAK0moMCULDAO7aDt3DOOuQ7+y+zm09FiNYbCXufe20E947P6wUBc8+AAgcWnwyIW3Z2L0I8FA8oGul9hPlX6CBLAQEBAQEBAQEC40DZQe7iB0QECv7Tp6MPgf9jAr4CAgICAECDthC3ZDgAknRgAAZJ+yHAEjy/BPyRZ+uO2vJ8l9C+zrV1+lJpsAFy5JRgBz4kiZuCloyRuGRw1LxlrMxL7X2suoN1HcMFG23eXVmT+5tyFZfW64yfOazceS7O1Xamymt0s4p0u7IsDEhKC7tZs9s2d6rAuTgElfEh20X6xqNSzHU7/ALDb9kUKsGzctVY9tQcjIzuAHLDkh2dkdqattTXS/slHtLMu1+7R3rVbE47t330OMgexYMDGAHHfqteiWFe+/asqju95wz2sHzsdscVqMKQAw4A9ZQ6ewe19W+pqS8Mnead7GrNRVVK9xt2WHqT3j7lySDgcY5D1sBAi1XsN8p+kDz+k9hPkX6CA0vsJ8q/QQJYCAgICBkiBiAgSrXtGWHwB8T8IG1OrZTnjHl4fd5QLWi4OMj/1AkgaumQQfEQKGAgICAgBAs+xP/jUf9mv/QIHbAovSftW6gJ3Sg5WxvWV33Mm3Zp12ey9m5sMc42HgwOLtPtnVV6Q3hA1m60rWqsPVSq0oj8sWyyLyMe1wPMO1e1rUQm0Kdmp7p3VHAKFciwJliOWVepGf5BRU+kerZFt7lRvaldqo62c/q7kszZ9X7a1cbRjHXrA3X0m1hBKpW22m25j3VwyaxQf1YAtkPm11Lc8r7OQQA9sVGc458/j/wChAzAQItV7DfKfpA8/pPYT5F+ggS6W9tidPZX+6vkPdAk79vd/Cv5QHft7v4V/KA79vd/Cv5QHft7v4V/KA74+Sn/KIGe/Pjg/EDj4QMd8fAKP8o/KBkOvUrz7uh+7wgRscnJgYgdGgs2vycA8QLiAgUDrgkeRx+EDEBAQEAIG9urans0WJjcmlVlzzyKx4SPNaa45tHhCLPeaYrWjvEPF+j/pvrLtTTW7JtewKcIAcH3zMwcblvkis+LG4b2jmyZa1nWpl7jtDtO0WvXStZNVK3ObWKgh2sVUDAHb+yfLHgccHnGu3lZf6bVoHDI24d/grtZfsjftBG4NytJPTGWAzAms9M6l3F6b1RQSXPdYCgWlWwHLYY02AcZ6ZxmBpZ6ZKVXu6bGPe1V2ZKAVi2+uoMxDetneSNm72ecQNtV6ZV1XW1WVONlpRSpU7lWnT2PZjIPB1CDaMkjkZ5ADXU+mIAYrprjtRXye6AId7EQDFmQWNT+HHGYG6+mC7VP6vflyFQDuvXfvUqdATZxsewAk4B2sRnjIWvY/bFepDFAw2YD7seq5GWqOCfXXjPhzwTA7NV7DfKfpA8/pPYT5F+ggNL7CfKv0ECWAgICAgICAgICAgXyNkA+YgbQKvtHT4O4dD19xgccBAQEAIHb2fpkt0dVbjKNQgYZIyDWMjI5E5tWLRMT2c3pF6zWe0uTR+iGhqdbK6cOpyp32HBHjgtgyCnCYaTzVjr85VqcBgpaLVr1j1n9Tt5tM1m2zTvey17nFa7ttbMQN65BdSUb1AGzsPEsrbjvPZbbmeurcDeSrBQxKm5bTycZYC7knlc+GYHUNX2axKbtOTggg4xhFtYg54IAN/u9vyMDn1L9loKSVqP2qCoAZbe16KDg8gizYeem33QJr7+znuuFgqFtTg2bwASRVU24fveq9IPwUeAgbNq+zQPaoxsTyPqq77AR7mazj5vIwObQ6rsvYtyilM10uNwAYA90ahj9/Jp4HOSnugWfo8unVbFpsFh713sb1cl3YkltgA93A/u+4wLHVew3yn6QPP6T2E+RfoIDS+wnyr9BAlgICAgICAgICAgIF3Q42ryOg+kDfePMQBYeYgcGs0q+0uPePygcEBAQAgbdn6+k6auuxXI7lFdGptI9gAqQUwZ5MRMal1S9qWi1Z1MeTSirs9GDJpkVgchl0rAg+YIryDOIxUidxWPss34/ir1mtstpifO0/q07R7m1y63aqlmrFb91W43orMVBLVEoRvswyFT6554GJFRV6rsHRWMWNuqwTYdvdsQDaLA21mpLKMWtwDjOCQTkkOnUdmaJ1KMdQVZFUju7OQouA/wCn/wDe/wCA+8IqextImNtupX7St7NtO3vTVatle8LQAACo9gLkdcwJtT2fpXtssNuqy9i2qorbbVatddYtr+yznFS8MWXk8cwFHZ+lRcJdqlfvO870Vtu7xjaXfBqKesbrcjbgbuAMDAcmj9HNBWU2tqPU7nb9kc5pelwd4p3HcaEyCcdcAQLjslNPpmtKtee9bcQ1VgA5J4VawMkscscseMk4EDt1Ha9RVgO8ztP/AErvL5IFfphhFB67R9BA/9k=" style="height: 171px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 215px;" /><br />
Greater Iraq- "Map of a Greater Iraq as envisioned by some Iraqi nationalists. The dark
green represents contemporary Iraq. The medium green represents
territory both claimed by Iraqi nationalists and held by Iraq such as
Kuwait under Iraqi occupation, 1990-1991) or held in union by Iraq such
as its federation with Joerdan<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan"></a>, including Jordanian control over the West Bank<a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/West_Bank" title="West Bank"></a> during the 1950s. Light green represents territory claimed by Iraqi nationalists that was not held by Iraq" (Wikipedia)<br />
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<img height="393" id="irc_mi" src="http://lw.palestineremembered.com/Maps/New/Map_GreaterIsreal.gif" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="248" /><br />
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Greater Israel- as it was conceived by the World Zionist Organization in 1918. This ancient historical conception includes southern Lebanon and southwestern Syria.<br />
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" style="height: 183px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 233px;" /><br />
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Greater Kurdistan- is only an idea. It has no home state. It is only the dream of Kursdish nationalists who would form a Kurdish nation out of the border region joining Syria, Turkey, Iraq and Iran.<br />
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<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_202061" style="width: 635px;">
<a href="http://www.barenakedislam.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/120315_map.jpg"><img alt="The graphic below shows the governance areas for the caliphate that al Qaeda has claimed it is in the process of creating through the jihads of its branches. The exact boundaries of these areas are open to discussion, but the names and general territories are as described by al Qaeda." class="size-full wp-image-202061" height="400" src="http://www.barenakedislam.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/120315_map.jpg" width="625" /></a><br />
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br />
The "Al Qaeda Caliphate" and its "Emirates": Map from an anti-Islamist website which has also appeared on the website for Foreign Policy: (http://shadow.foreignpolicy.com/category/topic/al_qaeda) : "The
graphic above shows the governance areas for the caliphate that al
Qaeda has claimed it is in the process of creating through the jihads of
its branches. The exact boundaries of these areas are open to
discussion, but the names and general territories are as described by al
Qaeda". http://www.barenakedislam.com/2013/02/17/confidential-letter-from-al-qaeda-told-jihadists-in-mali-to-hide-their-global-caliphate-agenda/</div>
</div>
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<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>IN HISTORY:</b></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">RELEVANT DATES</span>:</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-13486585006854139122013-08-27T18:24:00.001-07:002013-08-30T08:38:12.803-07:00TIMELINE AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES BY CATEGORY.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=7847063932319754721" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
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<br />
<b>The United States</b> <br />
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<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="3RfByYgFsykm8M:" 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" style="height: 168px; margin-left: -11px; margin-right: -12px; margin-top: 0px; width: 299px;" /><br />
<br />
<b> TIMELINE AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES BY CATEGORY.</b><br />
<br />
SCROLL DOWN FOR: <br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">CURRENT HISTORY</span></span> </span></span></i><br />
<i><b>EXPLORATION, SETTLEMENT, EXPANSION, IMMIGRATION. </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>SLAVES AND THE SLAVE TRADE.</b></i><br />
<i><b>FRANCE IN AMERICA.</b></i><br />
<i><b>RELIGION IN AMERICA.</b></i><br />
<i><b><b>RELATIONS BETWEEN CROWN AND COLONIES</b> </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</b></i><br />
<i><b>ELECTIONS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>POLITICAL PARTIES</b></i><br />
<i><b>THE WAR OF 1812,</b></i><br />
<i><b>STATE-FEDERAL RELATIONS. </b></i><br />
<i><b>THE CIVIL WAR.</b></i><br />
<i><b><b>CRIME, OUTLAWRY, LAW ENFORCEMENT.</b> </b></i><br />
<i><b><b>NATIVE AMERICANS</b> </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>ASSASSINATIONS</b></i><br />
<i><b>LATIN AMERICAN RELATIONS.</b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>LEARNING, INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY</b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>RACE RELATIONS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>CIVIL RIGHTS, WOMEN AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION</b></i><br />
<i><b>WORLD WAR ONE.</b></i><br />
<i><b>THE MIDDLE EAST. </b></i><br />
<i><b> SCANDALS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>DRUGS AND ALCOHOL.</b></i><br />
<i><b><b>THE ECONOMY, TRADE AND WEALTH.</b> </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>WORLD WAR TWO. </b></i><br />
<i><b>RACE RELATIONS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>THE COLD WAR.</b></i><br />
<i><b>PROTESTS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>TERRORISM </b></i><br />
<i><b>THE ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL DISASTERS.</b></i><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>CURRENT HISTORY:</b><br />
<br />
<b>2008 September - Turmoil in the
US and international financial markets as major Wall Street investment
bank Lehman Brothers collapses</b> and other big US financial players face
growing troubles as a result of the "credit crunch". With hundreds of
billions of dollars wiped out in bad loans and a prolonged property
slump, the US faces its worst financial crisis since the Great
Depression<b>. </b><br />
<b> -2009- December 1</b>- President Obama announces a <b>surge of 30,000
additional troops to Afghanistan</b> to stem increased efforts by the
Taliban in the country. The surge, which was suggested by
military officers, was not popular with the liberal base of the
Democratic party which had put the President in power on a pledge to
end both Middle Eastern wars. The war in Afghanistan, which
started as a response to the terror attacks on 9/11/2001, and the war
on terror in general, comes into focus again on December 25 when an
airliner headed for Detroit is attacked by a Muslim
extremist, 23-year-old Umar Farouk AbdulMutallab, who attempts
to
detonate a bomb, but fails.<br />
<b>2010 May-June - Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaste</b>r in the Gulf of Mexico causes the United States' biggest oil spill to date.<br />
<b>2010 November - Republicans make sweeping gains in mid-term elections,</b> regaining control of House of Representatives. <br />
<b>2011 May - US forces kill Al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden</b> in an operation in the Pakistani city of Abbottabad.<br />
<b>2011 September
- Anti-capitalist protesters take to the streets of major cities,
marching under the slogan "Occupy Wall Street</b>", against "corporate
greed" and increasing government debt. The protests inspire marches in
other cities worldwide.<br />
<div class="trailtext">
<b><span class="date">13 Nov 2012:</span> CIA Director Petraeus</b> falls in scandal.
</div>
<b><span class="date">14 Dec 2012: </span>
The shooting at Sandy Hook elementary</b> school in Newtown, Connecticut, is one of many in the US over the past 50 years.<br />
<br />
<i>HISTORY IN THE NEWS would like to thank the following sources:</i><br />
<br />
<br />
<i>
</i><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.shgresources.com/us/timeline/</span></i></div>
<i>
</i><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1840.html</span></i></div>
<i>
</i>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><a href="http://www.history.com/topics/the-us-presidents"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.history.com/topics/the-us-presidents</span></a></i></div>
<i>
</i>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://faculty.washington.edu/qtaylor/a_us_history/1800_1900_timeline.htm</span></i></div>
<i>
</i><br />
<br />
<b>EXPLORATION, SETTLEMENT, EXPANSION, IMMIGRATION. </b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1492 - - -Columbus makes the first
of four voyages to the New World, funded by the Spanish Crown, seeking a western
sea route to Asia. On October 12, sailing the Santa Maria, he lands in the
Bahamas, thinking it is an outlying Japanese island.</span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1499 -
Italian navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, sights the coast of South America during a
voyage of discovery for Spain. </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1507 -
The name "America" is first used in a geography book referring to the New World
with Amerigo Vespucci getting credit for the discovery of the continent.</span></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
1508 - Spanish Invade Puerto Rico </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
1513 - Ponce de Leon lands in Florida </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
1516 - Smallpox introduced in New World</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1524 -
Giovanni da Verrazano, sponsored by France, lands in the area around the
Carolinas, then sails north and discovers the Hudson River, and continues
northward into Narragansett Bay and Nova Scotia.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1663
- King Charles II establishes the colony of Carolina and grants the
territory to eight loyal supporters.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1681
- Pennsylvania is founded as William Penn, a Quaker, receives a Royal
charter with a large land grant from King Charles II.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1682
- French explorer La Salle explores the lower Mississippi Valley region
and claims it for France, naming the area Louisiana for King Louis XIV.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1682
- A large wave of immigrants, including many Quakers, arrives in
Pennsylvania from Germany and the British Isles. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1685
- Protestants in France lose their guarantee of religious freedom as
King Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes, spurring many to leave for
America.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1730
- Baltimore is founded in the Maryland colony.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">St. Augustine Roanoke, DeSoto</span></span><span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>539 - <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>eSoto and <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>e Coronado mount expeditions </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: red;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1541- Hernando <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>e Soto of Spain discovers the Mississippi River </span></span></span><b><b> </b></b><br />
1565 <b>- </b>First permanent European settlement in North America - St
Augustine, present-day Florida - founded by the Spanish. North America
is already inhabited by several distinct groups of people, who go into
decline following the arrival of settlers.<br />
1584<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal;">
-
</span>Raleigh’s
Roanoke Island Va. Colony<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="yQf2dSnnKpE9BM:" 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" style="height: 182px; margin-left: -12px; margin-top: 0px; width: 253px;" /> <br />
<br />
Roanoke Colony.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1590 - Roanoke found abandoned </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<b> </b></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1607 - Jamestown, Virginia, founded by English settlers, who begin growing tobacco</span></span><br />
<br />
The Dutch.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1613 -
A Dutch trading post is set up on lower Manhattan Island. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>619 - Dutch <span style="font-size: small;">de<span style="font-size: small;">liver the fist sla<span style="font-size: small;">ves to Virginia<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1664
- The Dutch New Netherlands colony becomes English New York after Gov.
Peter Stuyvesant surrenders to the British following a naval blockade.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1673
- Dutch military forces retake New York from the British.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1674
- The Treaty of Westminster ends hostilities between the English and
Dutch and returns Dutch colonies in America to the English.<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Pilgrims and Puritans.</span><br /> </span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1620</b>
- Plymouth Colony, near Cape Cod, is founded by the Pilgrim Fathers,
whose example is followed by other English Puritans in New England. </span></span> </span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1620’s - Puritans settle in Massachusetts</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1630
- In March, John Winthrop leads a Puritan migration of 900
colonists to Massachusetts </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Bay,where he will serve as the first
governor. In September, Boston is officially established and </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">serves as
the site of Winthrop's government.</span> </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1636 - H<span style="font-size: small;">arvard fou<span style="font-size: small;">nded</span></span> - In June, Roger Williams founds Providence and Rhode
Island. Williams</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">had been banished from Massachusetts for "new and
dangerous opinions" calling for religious and </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">political freedoms,
including separation of church and state, not granted under the Puritan
rules.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Providence then becomes a haven for many other colonists fleeing
religious intolerance. </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1638-<span style="color: windowtext;">- Anne Hutchinson is banished from Massachusetts for
nonconformist religious views that </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">advocate personal revelation over the
role of the clergy. She then travels with her family to </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Rhode Island</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">The Tr<span style="font-size: small;">eaty of Paris, 1863.</span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The French and Indian War, known in Europe as the Seven Year's War, ends
with the Treaty of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Paris. Under the treaty, France gives England all French
territory east of the Mississippi River, except New </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Orleans. The Spanish
give up east and west Florida to the English in return for Cuba.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits
any English settlement west of the Appalachian mountains and requires those
already settled in those regions to return east<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="fTyYEJhz2OqktM:" 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" style="height: 200px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 137px;" /><br />
<br />
<b>1803</b> -April 2- France sells Louisiana territories to USA. President Thomas Jefferson doubles the size of the
United States of America with his purchase of the Louisiana Territory
from Napoleon's France, thus paving way for the western expansion that
would mark the entire history of the 19th century from Missouri to the
Pacific Coast. The price of the purchase included bonds of
$11,250,000 and $3.750,000 in payments to United States citizens with
claims against France.<br />
<b>1804-</b> October 26- The Lewis and Clark Expedition arrives at the
confluence of the Knife and Missouri Rivers, in what is now the state
of North Dakota, where they camped until the spring of 1805 at the
hospitality of the Mandan and Minitari Indian villages.<br />
<b>1806</b>- The National Road, also known as the Great National Pike or the
Cumberland Road, the first federally funded highway that ran between
Cumberland, Maryland to Ohio, was approved by President Thomas
Jefferson on March 29, 1806, with the signing of legislation and
appropriation of $30,000. The highway ran through three
states,
including Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.<br />
<br />
1823- Dec. 2- Monroe Doctrine - In a speech before Congress, James Monroe announces
the Monroe Doctrine, stating the policy that European
intervention anyplace is the Americas is opposed and that he would
establish American neutrality in future European wars.<br />
<b>19th century</b> - Residual resistance by indigenous people
crushed as immigration from Europe assumes mass proportions, with
settlers moving westwards and claiming "manifest destiny" to control
North America; number of states in the union rises from 17 to 45.<br />
1835-October 2- The Revolution of Texas begins with the Battle of
Gonzales when Mexican soldiers try to disarm the people of Gonzales,
but are resisted by local militia. On November 2-4, 1835 -
Texas
proclaimed the right to secede from Mexico with Sam Houston taking
command of the Texas army. His Texas army would capture San Antonio on December 9.<br />
<br />
1836-February 23-March 6 - The Battle For the Alamo is waged in San
Antonio, Texas when 3,000 Mexican troops under Santa Ana attack the
mission and its 189 defenders. (Picture of Alamo memorial
above)
Texas troops lose the battle after a thirteen day
siege. On
March 2, 1836, Texas independence was declared at a convention of
delegates from fifty-seven Texas communities at
Washington-on-the-Brazos, making them an independent nation free from
Mexican rule.<br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Presidency of John Tyler, 1841-1845</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></pre>
1842-May 16- The first organized wagon train on the Oregon Trail leaves with more than one hundred pioneers from Elm
Grove, Missouri. Although not welcomed due to company policy
that discouraged emigration, they were offered food and farming
equipment at Fort Vancouver by the Hudson Bay Company upon arrival.
(Photo top right) Independence Rock on the
Oregon Trail. First mentioned by Parker in .<b> </b><br />
<pre><b>11. James Knox Polk, 1845-1849</b></pre>
<big> </big><br />
<big>1845- </big>
December 2- U.S. President Polk invokes the concept of Manifest
Destiny, announcing to Congress that the Monroe Doctrine should be
strictly enforced and that the setlement of the West should be
aggressively pursued.<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1867- March 30- </span><b> </b>The United States purchases the Alaska Territory from Russia for $7.2 million. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1867- </span>Aug. 28- The U.S. annexes the Midway Islands.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
The Mexican War <br />
<br />
<b>1846-48</b>
- US acquires vast tracts of Mexican territory in wake of Mexican War
including California and New Mexico. 1846-May 8, 1846 - The first
conflict of the Mexican War occurs north of the
Rio Grande River at Palo Alto, Texas when United States troops under
the command of Major General Zachary Taylor rout a larger Mexican
force. Zachary had been ordered by President Polk to sieze
disputed Texas land settled by Mexicans.<br />
<br />
1846- May 13- War is declared by the United States against Mexico,
backed by southerners while northern Whigs were in
opposition. Ten days later, Mexico declares war back.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQuwl6xg5yjecemY00zrAZLEO7f2K5ZLyUxyQTdgFtAVUVWl2n3" data-sz="f" name="HkCa_DcGlDAmiM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQuwl6xg5yjecemY00zrAZLEO7f2K5ZLyUxyQTdgFtAVUVWl2n3" style="height: 182px; margin-left: -15px; margin-top: 0px; width: 276px;" /> <br />
<br />
1847-September 8-15- The Battle for Mexico City is fought, beginning
two miles outside the city at King's Mill. The main assault
against the fortress Capultepec came on September 12 under the command
of General Winfield Scott, with combatants including Ulysses S. Grant
and John Quitman's 4th Division, of which George Pickett and James
Longstreet were a part. Quitman's division entered a deserted
city, which had been abandoned by Santa Anna's forces during the night,
on September 15.<br />
1848-January 24- Gold was discovered in California by James W.
Marshall at Sutter's Mill in the town of Colona.
Seven months later, on August 19, the New York Herald breaks the news
of the gold rush to East Coast readers, prompting eighty thousand
prospectors to flood California and the Barbary Coast of San Francisco
in 1849. Picture below, Riverside gold mine with streambed
sluice, probably located in the California's Sierra Nevada mining
district. Date unknown.<br />
1848- February 2- The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican
War with Mexico relinquishing its rights to Texas above the Rio Grande
River and ceding New Mexico and California to the United
States. The United States also gained claims to Arizona,
Nevada, Utah, and part of Colorado. In exchange, the United
States assumed $3 million in American claims and paid Mexico $15
million. The treaty is ratified one month later on March 10
by the U.S. Senate. Mexico would ratify the treaty on May 19.<br />
<br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">Presidency of </span>Zachary Taylor, 1849-1850</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>849- 80,000 people migrate to California; about 55,000 overland and 25,000 by sea. Only about </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">700 are women. </span></pre>
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1853- </span><span style="font-size: small;">December 30- The Gadsden Purchase is consummated, with the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>United States buying </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">a 29,640 square mile tract of land in present-day<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Arizona and New Mexico (approximately from </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Yuma to Las Cruces) for $10<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>million from Mexico to allow railroad building in the southwest and
settle continued border disputes after the Mexican-American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>War. This act finalized the </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">borders of the Continental United States.</span></span></pre>
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1855- </span>April
21- The first railroad train crosses the Mississippi River on the first
bridge constructed at Rock Island, Illinois to Davenport,
Iowa</span>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSz34IiVoR-4P_USoyk3k4f_fh2ZOGG5T5hFdFmYQlYdO8R7C6t" data-sz="f" name="z2ZwbPJ0eRY1aM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSz34IiVoR-4P_USoyk3k4f_fh2ZOGG5T5hFdFmYQlYdO8R7C6t" style="height: 182px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -3px; width: 277px;" /><br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1869- May 10 <b>- </b>The Transcontinental Railroad is completed at Promontory Point, Utah.</span></span></pre>
-As the 19th Century came to a close, the American electorate changed
more and more rapidly. The Democratic Party embraced the immigrants who
flooded into cities and industrial centers, built a political base by
bringing them into the American mainstream, and helped create the most
powerful economic engine in history <br />
1892- January 1-Ellis Island in New York Harbor, opens as the main east coast immigration center,
and would remain the initial debarkation point for European immigrants
into the United States until its closure.<br />
1893 September 16 - The 4th of five land runs in Oklahoma's dash,
known as the Oklahoma Land Race or
the Cherokee Strip Land Run, opened seven million acres of the
Cherokee Strip. It was purchased from the Indian tribe for
$7,000,000. Nearly 100,000 people gathered around the 42,000
claims that were available to the first person, with a certificate, to
stake a claim.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>898- </span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">April 22, 1898 - The blockade of Cuba begins when the United States<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Navy aids independence forces</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> within Cuba. Several days<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>later,<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>the U.S.A. declares war on Spain, backdating its declaration to April
20. On May 1, 1898, the United States Navy destroyed the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Spanish<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>fleet in the Philippines. On June 20, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">the U.S. would take<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Guam.
May 12, 1898 - San Juan, Puerto Rico is bombed by the American navy<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>under the command of Rear Admiral</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">William T. Sampson. Puerto<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Rico<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>is overtaken by the United States between July 25 with its landing at<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Guanica Bay and August 12. These acts during the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Spanish-American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>War would ultimately result in Spain </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">deciding in December to cede<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>lands, including Puerto Rico, to the United</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> States. </span></span></pre>
<b>1898</b> - US gains Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines and Cuba following the Spanish-American war. US annexes Hawaii.<br />
1901- March 2 - The Platt amendment is passed by the United States
Congress, which limited the autonomy of Cuba as a condition for
American troop withdrawal. Cuba would become a U.S.
protectorate on June 12.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1921- May 19- A national quota system on the amount of incoming immigrants was
established by the United States Congress in the Emergency Quota Act,
curbing legal immigration.</span></span></pre>
1988- May 4- The deadline for amnesty application by illegal aliens is
met by 1.4 million, who apply. It is estimated that 71% of
those
who applied had entered the United States from Mexico.<br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>2006</b> April-May - Millions of immigrants and their supporters take to the streets to
protest against plans to criminali<span style="font-size: small;">z</span>e illegal immigrants.</span></span></pre>
<br />
<br />
<b>SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">17th-18th centuries - Hundreds of thousands of Africans brought over and sold into slavery to work on<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">cotton and tobacco plantations. </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>619 - Dutch <span style="font-size: small;">de<span style="font-size: small;">liver the fist sla<span style="font-size: small;">ves to Virginia<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1652
- Rhode Island enacts the first law in the colonies declaring slavery
illegal.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1664
- Maryland passes a law making lifelong servitude for black slaves
mandatory to prevent them from taking advantage of legal precedents
established in England which grant freedom under certain conditions,
such as conversion to Christianity. Similar laws are later passed in New
York, New Jersey, the Carolinas and Virginia.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1672
- The Royal Africa Company is given a monopoly in the English slave
trade.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1688
- Quakers in Pennsylvania issue a formal protest against slavery in
America.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1696
- The Royal African Trade Company loses its slave trade monopoly,
spurring colonists in New England to engage in slave trading for profit.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1712- </span></span> June<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span> the Pennsylvania assembly bans the
import of slaves into that colony. </span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1716
- The first group of black slaves is brought to the Louisiana territory.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1739<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> three separate violent uprisings by black slaves occur in South
Carolina.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1740
- Fifty black slaves are hanged in Charleston, South Carolina, after plans
for another revolt are revealed</span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1799- March 29- A law is passed to abolish slavery in the state of New
York, effective twenty-eight year later, in 1827. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<b>1807</b>- Congress passes an act that prohibits the importation
of slaves into any port within the confines of the<br />
United States from
any foreign land.<br />
<b>1808</b> - Atlantic slave trade abolished<br />
-Presidency of James Monroe (1817-25) 1820- March 3- The Missouri Compromise bill, sponsored by<br />
Henry Clay,
is passed in the United States Congress. This legislation
allows
slavery in the Missouri territory,<br />
but not in any other location west
of the Misssissippi River that was north of 36 degrees 30 minutes
latitude,<br />
the current southern line of the state of Missouri.
The
state of Missouri would be admitted to the Union,<br />
<br />
under this
compromise, on August 10, 18.<br />
<br />
1831-August 21- A local slave rebellion in Southampton County,
Virginia, led by Nat Turner, a black slave,<br />
killed fifty-seven white
citizens. Turner would be captured on October 30 of the same
year, tried, and<br />
hanged on November 11 for his part in the uprising.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSbRCrU61Ib6OPzIUvVf76ay7Doxg0dO6hNzyZVJK0YApHf_xVR" data-sz="f" name="RI_Ghlzg3P8DFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSbRCrU61Ib6OPzIUvVf76ay7Doxg0dO6hNzyZVJK0YApHf_xVR" style="height: 183px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 196px;" /> </div>
<br />
1838- September 3- Frederick Douglass, future
abolitionist, boards a train in Maryland to freedom from slavery, with
borrowed identification and a sailor's uniform from a free Black seaman<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">.</span></span><b> </b><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1852- </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Mar. 20: Harriet BeecherStowe publishes <i>Uncle Tom's Cabin</i>, which sells 300,000 copies in a year </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">and a million copies in 16 months.<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>When Stowe met President Lincoln at the White House, he reportedly asked her: "Is this the little woman whose book made such a great
war?"</span> </span></span></pre>
<br />
P<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">residency of</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Franklin Pierce, 1853-1857</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1854 - Opponents of slavery, or abolitionists, set up Republican Party.</span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Republican party grew out of the conflicts regarding the
expansion of slavery into the new Western territories. The stimulus for
its founding was provided by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of
1854. That law repealed earlier compromises that had excluded slavery
from the territories. The passage of this act served as the unifying
agent for abolitionists and split the Democrats and the Whig party.
"Anti-Nebraska" protest meetings spread rapidly through the country. Two
such meetings were held in Ripon, Wis., on Feb. 28 and Mar. 20, 1854,
and were attended by a group of abolitionist Free Soilers, Democrats,
and Whigs. They decided to call themselves Republicans-because they
professed to be political descendants of Thomas Jefferson's
Democratic-Republican party. The name was formally adopted by a state
convention held in Jackson, Mich., on July 6, 1854.</span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1855 - Free Soilers establish government banning slavery and blacks from Kansas;</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1857 - Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision that a slave did not become free when </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">transported into a<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>free state. It also ruled that slavery could not be banned by </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">the U.S. Congress in a territory, and that blacks were not eligible to be
awarded citizenship.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="bzT0KASq8slsfM:" 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" style="height: 189px; margin-left: -3px; margin-top: 0px; width: 165px;" /> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Dred Scott</span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1858- June 23,- With strife between pro-slavery and anti-slavery
partisans escalating to dramatic chaos, the 2nd Infantry and 3rd
Artillery regiments under the command of Captain Nathanial Lyon attempt
to restore order during the "Bleeding Kansas" campaign.</span></span> </span></span></span></pre>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1860-61
- Eleven pro-slavery southern states secede from Union and form
Confederate States of America under leadership of Jefferson Davis,
triggering civil war with abolitionist northern states.</span><br />
1865- December 18- The 13th Amendment abolishing slavery is added to the Constitution.<br />
1866-
Jun 16 - The 14th Amendment declaring all persons born on American
soil, to be citizens (including blacks) is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<b> FRANCE IN AMERICA.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1682
- French explorer La Salle explores the lower Mississippi Valley region
and claims it for France, naming the area Louisiana for King Louis XIV.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><b><br /></b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1690
- The beginning of King William's War as hostilities in Europe
between the French and English spill over to the colonies. In
February, Schenectady, New York is burned by the French with the aid of
their Native American allies.</span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1701
- In July, The French establish a settlement at Detroit. </span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1702
- In March, Queen Anne ascends the English throne. In May, England
declares war on France after the death of the King of Spain, Charles II,
to stop the union of France and Spain. This War of the Spanish
Succession is called Queen Anne's War in the colonies, where the English
and American colonists will battle the French, their Native American
allies, and the Spanish for the next eleven years.</span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1713
- Queen Anne's War ends with the Treaty of Utrecht.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1718
- New Orleans is founded by the French.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1740<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> in Europe, the War of the
Austrian Succession begins after the death of Emperor Charles VI and
eventually results in France and Spain allied against England. The conflict
is known in the American colonies as King George's War and lasts until
1748.</span></span></span> </span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> 1754
- The French and Indian War erupts as a result of disputes over land in the
Ohio River Valley. In May, George Washington leads a small group of American
colonists to victory over the French, then builds Fort Necessity in the Ohio
territory. In July, after being attacked by numerically superior French
forces, Washington surrenders the fort and retreats.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1755
- In February, English General Edward Braddock arrives in Virginia with two
regiments of English </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">troops. Gen. Braddock assumes the post of commander in
chief of all English forces in America. In April, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Gen. Braddock and Lt. Col.
George Washington set out with nearly 2000 men to battle the French in the </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Ohio territory. In July, a force of about 900 French and Indians defeat
those English forces. Braddock is </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">mortally wounded. Massachusetts Governor
William Shirley then becomes the new commander in chief.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1756
- England declares war on France, as the French and Indian War in the
colonies now spreads to </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Europe.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1757
- In June, William Pitt becomes England's Secretary of State and escalates
the French and Indian War </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in the colonies by establishing a policy of
unlimited warfare. In July, Benjamin Franklin begins a five year stay </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in
London.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="tmeyf5iYO9SmVM:" 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" style="height: 180px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -2px; width: 280px;" /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1758
- In July, a devastating defeat occurs for English forces at Lake George,
New York, as nearly two </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">thousand men are lost during a frontal attack
against well entrenched French forces at Fort Ticonderoga. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">French losses are
377. In November, the French abandon Fort Duquesne in the Ohio territory.
Settlers then </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">rush into the territory to establish homes. Also in 1758, the
first Indian reservation in America is founded, in </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">New Jersey, on 3000
acres.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1759
- French Fort Niagara is captured by the English. Also in 1759, war erupts
between Cherokee </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Indians and southern colonists.</span> </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The French and Indian War, known in Europe as the Seven Year's War, ends
with the Treaty of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Paris. Under the treaty, France gives England all French
territory east of the Mississippi River, except New </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Orleans. The Spanish
give up east and west Florida to the English in return for Cuba.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>763
- In May, the Ottawa Native Americans under Chief Pontiac begin all-out
warfare against the British </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">west of Niagara, destroying several British
forts and conducting a siege against the British at Detroit. In </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">August,
Pontiac's forces are defeated by the British near Pittsburgh. The siege of
Detroit ends in November, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">but hostilities between the British and Chief
Pontiac continue for several years.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits
any English settlement west of the Appalachian mountains and requires those
already settled in those regions to return east in an attempt to ease
tensions with Native Americans.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1801-1809<span style="font-size: small;">- Thomas Jefferson is <span style="font-size: small;">president.</span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<b>1803</b> -April 2- France sells Louisiana territories to USA. President Thomas Jefferson doubles the size of the
United States of America with his purchase of the Louisiana Territory
from Napoleon's France, thus paving way for the western expansion that
would mark the entire history of the 19th century from Missouri to the
Pacific Coast. The price of the purchase included bonds of
$11,250,000 and $3.750,000 in payments to United States citizens with
claims against France.<br />
<br />
<b>RELIGION IN AMERICA.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>517-Martin Luther
launches the Protestant Reformation in Europe, bringing an end to the sole
authority of the Catholic Church, resulting in the growth of numerous Protestant
religious sects.</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1620
- Plymouth Colony, near Cape Cod, is founded by the Pilgrim Fathers,
whose example is followed by other English Puritans in New England. </span></span> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1620’s - Puritans settle in Massachusetts</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1630
- In March, John Winthrop leads a Puritan migration of 900
colonists to Massachusetts </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Bay,where he will serve as the first
governor. In September, Boston is officially established and </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">serves as
the site of Winthrop's government.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1646
- In Massachusetts, the general court approves a law that makes
religious heresy punishable by death.</span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1685
- Protestants in France lose their guarantee of religious freedom as
King Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes, spurring many to leave for
America.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1687
- In March, New England Royal Governor, Sir Edmund Andros, orders
Boston's Old South Meeting House to be converted into an Anglican
Church.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1692
- In May, hysteria grips the village of Salem, Massachusetts, as
witchcraft suspects are arrested and imprisoned. A special court is
then set up by the governor of Massachusetts. Between June and
September, 150 persons are accused, with 20 persons, including 14 women,
being executed. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1692-</span></span> October<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span> the hysteria subsides, remaining prisoners
are released and the special court is dissolved.</span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1700
- In June, Massachusetts passes a law ordering all Roman Catholic
priests to leave the colony within three months, upon penalty of life
imprisonment or execution. New York then passes a similar law.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1706- November<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">- </span></span>South
Carolina establishes the Anglican Church as its official church.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1734- </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">December<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> the Great
Awakening religious revival movement begins in Massachusetts. The movement
will last ten years and spread to all of the American colonies.</span></span></span><br />
1924- July 10- The Scopes Trial or "Monkey Trial" begins and would
later convict John T. Scopes of teaching Charles Darwin's evolutionary
theory at a Dayton, Tennessee high school, which violated Tennessee
law. He is fined $100 for the charge.<br />
<img height="384" id="irc_mi" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSWC5uEqWb17JZ9pkJCrmwQXfvQaqxdOlQL6uzhb6iqYvrAbdjt8A" style="margin-top: 5px;" width="480" /><br />
1993-
February 28- The fifty-one day Waco standoff begins when the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms attempt to arrest the Branch
Dividian leader David Koresh on federal arms violations. Four
agents and five members of the cult are killed in the raid.
The
siege would end on April 19 when a fire, started by the Davidians,
killed seventy-five members of the group, including the leader.<br />
<br />
<b><b>RELATIONS BETWEEN CROWN AND COLONIES</b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1215- The <span style="font-size: small;">Magna Carta </span>is adopted in England, guaranteeing
liberties to the English people, and proclaiming basic rights
and procedures which later become the foundation of modern
democracy. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1660
- The English Crown approves a Navigation Act requiring the exclusive
use of English ships for trade in the English Colonies and limits
exports of tobacco and sugar and other commodities to England or its
colonies</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1663
- Navigation Act of 1663 requires that most imports to the colonies must
be transported via England on English ships.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1673
- The British Navigation Act of 1673 sets up the office of customs
commissioner in the colonies to </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">collect duties on goods that pass
between plantations.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1686
- King James II begins consolidating the colonies of New England into
a single Dominion depriving colonists of their local political rights
and independence. Legislatures are dissolved and the King's
representatives assume all of the judicial and legislative power.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1687- August, the Massachusetts towns of Ipswich and Topsfield
resist assessments imposed by Gov. Andros in protest of taxation without
representation.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1688
- In March, Gov. Andros imposes a limit of one annual town meeting for
New England towns. The Governor then orders all militias to be placed
under his control.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1689
- In February, William and Mary of Orange become King and Queen of
England. <span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1689-</span></span> April, New England Governor Andros is jailed by
rebellious colonists in Boston. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1689- </span></span> July, the English government orders
Andros to be returned to England to stand trial.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1691
- In New York, the newly appointed Governor of New England, Henry
Sloughter, arrives from England and institutes royally sanctioned
representative government. In October, Massachusetts gets a new royal
charter which includes government by a royal governor and a governor's
council.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1696- April<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span> the Navigation Act of 1696 is passed by the English Parliament
requiring colonial trade to be done exclusively via English built ships.
The Act also expands the powers of colonial custom commissioners,
including rights of forcible entry, and requires the posting of bonds on
certain goods.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1699
- The English Parliament passes the Wool Act, protecting its own wool
industry by limiting wool </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">production in Ireland and forbidding the
export of wool from the American colonies.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1714
- Tea is introduced for the first time into the American Colonies</span></span></span> <br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1729 - Benjamin Franklin begins publishing The Pennsylvania Gazette, which eventually
becomes the most popular colonial newspaper.</span></span></span> <br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> 1734
- In November, New York newspaper publisher John Peter Zenger is arrested
and accused of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">seditious libel by the Governor. </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1735
- John Peter Zenger is brought to trial for seditious libel but is acquitted
after his lawyer successfully convinces the jury that truth is a defense
against libel.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1750
- The Iron Act is passed by the English Parliament, limiting the growth of
the iron industry in the </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">American colonies to protect the English Iron
industry.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1751
- The Currency Act is passed by the English Parliament, banning the issuing
of paper money by the New England colonies.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</b><br />
<br />
<b>1774</b> - Colonists form First Continental Congress as Britain closes down Boston harbour and deploys troops in Massachusetts.<br />
<b>1775</b> - American Revolution: George Washington leads colonist Continental Army to fight against British rule. <br />
<b>1776</b> 4 July - Thomas Jefferson's American Declaration of Independence endorsed by Congress; colonies declare independence.<br />
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" style="height: 192px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 256px;" /> <br />
<b>1781</b>
- Rebel states form loose confederation, codified in Articles of
Confederation, after defeating the British at the Battle of Yorktown.<br />
<b>1783</b> - Britain accepts loss of colonies by virtue of Treaty of Paris.<br />
<img height="214" id="irc_mi" src="http://192.204.19.100/museum/jefferson/images/NA-1783.jpg" style="margin-top: 37px;" width="200" /><br />
Treaty of Paris, 1783 <br />
<br />
<b>1787</b> - Founding Fathers draw up new constitution for United States of America. Constitution comes into effect in 1788.<br />
1789-1797- George Washington elected first president of USA. <br />
<br />
<b>ELECTIONS.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
-The election of John Quincy Adams in 1824 was highly contested and led
to a four-way split among Democratic-Republicans. A result of the split
was the emergence of<b> Andrew Jackson</b> as a national leader. The war hero,
generally considered -- along with Jefferson -- one of the founding
fathers of the Democratic Party, organized his supporters to a degree
unprecedented in American history. The Jacksonian Democrats created the
national convention process, the party platform.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1912- November 5, 1912 - In the first election of a Democratic candidate
since 1892, Woodrow Wilson overcame a three way race for the presidency
when former President Teddy Roosevelt donned the nomination of the
Progressive Party to tackle the election against Wilson and incumbant
President and Republican William Howard Taft. This split
caused the election of Wilson, who garnered 435 Electoral College votes to 88
for Roosevelt and only 8 for Taft.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> -The 17th Amendment would be passed on April 8,
which set the policy for direct election of U.S. Senators. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1932-November 8 - Democratic challenger Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats
incumbent President Hoover in the presidential election for his first of an unprecedented four</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> terms.<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> The landslide victory, 472 Electoral College votes to 59 for Hoover began the era of FDR that
would lead the nation through the vestiges of the Great Depression and
the ravages of World War II</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> </span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="vBiNjfQa-ec9aM:" 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" style="height: 191px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 146px;" /></pre>
1944- November 6- The last campaign speech of Franklin D. Roosevelt,
seeking his fourth term in office, is broadcast from his Hyde Park, New
York home. Two days later, Roosevelt would gain that fourth
term
by a significant, but smaller margin than any of his previous
elections, especially in the popular vote where Dewey lost by only
three and one half million votes. The Electoral College
margin,
however, at 432 to 99, insured Roosevelt good footing in prosecution of
World War II.<br />
1960 - Democratic Party candidate John F Kennedy elected president, narrowly defeating his rival Richard Nixon.<br />
1964- November 3, 1964 - President Lyndon B. Johnson wins his first
presidential election with a victory over Barry M. Goldwater from
Arizona. Johnson extended the Democratic victory by former
running mate John F. Kennedy with a 486 to 52 thrashing of the
Republican candidate in the Electoral College and over 15 million
surplus in the popular vote. <br />
1994- November 8- The Republican revolution concludes with the midterm
elections when for the first time in forty years, the party gains
control of both the Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives.<br />
2000- November - Republican Party's George W Bush wins presidency. George W. Bush, son of the former President, and
Vice President Al Gore hold a virtual dead-heat for the presidency,
with a disputed vote in Florida holding off the naming of the winner of
the President Election until the Supreme Court of the United States
voted in favor of Bush on December 12. This ruling gave
Florida
to the Bush camp by a 527 vote majority, and a victory in the Electoral
College, 271-266, despite gaining less popular votes than
Gore.<br />
2008- August 29- John McCain chooses Sarah Palin, 1st term Governor of Alaska,
as his running mate, making the contest between Barack Obama
and himself, the first time a presidential election included both an
African-American candidate and a woman amongst the Presidential and
Vice Presidential nominees for president among the Democratic and
Republican tickets. <br />
<b>2008</b> November - Democratic Senator Barack Obama becomes the first black president of the United States.<br />
<br />
<b>POLITICAL PARTIES</b><br />
<br />
1792- Thomas Jefferson founded the Democratic Party in 1792 as a congressional
caucus to fight for the Bill of Rights and against the elitist
Federalist Party.<br />
<br />
1798- the "party of the common man" was officially named the Democratic-Republican Party <br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
1801 - March 4, Thomas Jefferson is inaugurated for his first term as
President of the United States, with Aaron Burr, his defeated opponent,
as Vice President, as was the rule at the time.<br />
-presidency of John Quincy Adams (1825-29)<br />
-The election of John Quincy Adams in 1824 was highly contested and led
to a four-way split among Democratic-Republicans. A result of the split
was the emergence of<b> Andrew Jackson</b> as a national leader. The war hero,
generally considered -- along with Jefferson -- one of the founding
fathers of the Democratic Party, organized his supporters to a degree
unprecedented in American history. The Jacksonian Democrats created the
national convention process, the party platform.<br />
1828-November- After a tumultuous four years of national politics saw
the formation of the Democratic party behind Andrew Jackson and the
supporters of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay as the National
Republicans, The election for president sees a popular and electoral
college vote victory of 178-83 for Andrew Jackson over President John
Quincy Adams.<br />
<br />
<img align="middle" alt="" border="0" class="th imgthumb12" height="186" name="imgthumb12" 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<br />
-The Jacksonian Democrats created the national convention process, the
party platform, and reunified the Democratic Party with Jackson's
victories in 1828 and 1832. <br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>-</b></span></span>presidency of Andrew Jackson-<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> 1829-1837</span></span></span><br />
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6rO1jLdtKWVhY+RCSWgurYgWfn7LLZsYhypYmig15FWtdmZDcAxOeC9t0GjYErI50gmypJQOkPcXAensqwTogSSSTiitTQ5EkJuN7h8lCUguzTgzj6s19NlHSfXsr4kDxYNrLqfHyZIXeU7eijXEv0Wnla+n/9k=" style="display: inline-block; height: 122px; margin: 0px 0px 0px 0px; width: 122px;" title="http://www.biography.com/people/thomas-jefferson-9353715" width="122" /><br />
<br />
-In 1848, the National Convention established the Democratic National
Committee, now the longest running political organization in the world.
The Convention charged the DNC with the responsibility of promoting "the
Democratic cause" between the conventions and preparing for the next
convention.<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">-presidency of</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Franklin Pierce, 1853-1857</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1854 - Opponents of slavery, or abolitionists, set up Republican Party.</span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Republican party grew out of the conflicts regarding the
expansion of slavery into the new Western territories. The stimulus for
its founding was provided by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of
1854. That law repealed earlier compromises that had excluded slavery
from the territories. The passage of this act served as the unifying
agent for abolitionists and split the Democrats and the Whig party.
"Anti-Nebraska" protest meetings spread rapidly through the country. Two
such meetings were held in Ripon, Wis., on Feb. 28 and Mar. 20, 1854,
and were attended by a group of abolitionist Free Soilers, Democrats,
and Whigs. They decided to call themselves Republicans-because they
professed to be political descendants of Thomas Jefferson's
Democratic-Republican party. The name was formally adopted by a state
convention held in Jackson, Mich., on July 6, 1854.</span></span></span><br />
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09PxD17evywwnGIjHzdYCaymomhqEnKq/wDbFA+u2G0wAvgThv8A0HK/7iP/AC4UvgXhw7ZHKf7iP/Lh+HxNlmj5vNULRvURYrva3YI9sGZnPxx0HdVJugSBdd69+4/XDaI//kfkB2yeVH0gj/y49HhTJdvsuX/3Mf8Alw7/AG9liSBNFY79Y2/n8j9aOH8zxSKJNbyKF06gbG4Aux79x29x7jD0ML4byg7ZaAD5RJ/lwteAZYdsvCP/AISf5cceNxCOORnEYkAKayATdVVE3djt7jD2U4lFKSI3VytXpN1e43+YN/niehA4Nlx/qIv92v8Ahh+HLonwqq3+6oF/piJy/jDKuL5gX/aIGxqjV3vYod9+24teY8SwKLEgbqVaXuLkEZP0Vjue2x9dsPRL3jgcR+Y45BHEJnkURN2fejsT7eyk/lgHM+McuhotfUAQAbVdN6yNN0PUd98Mqp+sdiCl8W5fmRxxtrZ3KbXt0udXaiLjK2D3v2OPcx4vy0UjRyyBWTdulqGynuBXZ1/XDKibx6MR2a43EkaytYRmC2VIqyRZBogCjv8A1wTks2sq6kNiyPzBo/zGAfIx2PGGOwwNqcOg4bXDoGJGqio/EWWZpF5qqY30HUygEiNZDpN9QCuD8t/bHQ+JMswcmZECMVJZlF0QNQN7qSy0fWxhhfBeSBJ5W5ofG+wAUKB1bBdC0B2KgjC5fDWTVjKUIYHWWLv3DK9nqruik/7IxrxAOZ4VlnkOcE91LE2pShAZUaECztR5tkXudNexRkeAZLkalmMkcccyGUsppZetrOn8IYlSewc9wcSnDIMpJBy4QDEpUaRqGmgrKKNMBQUgdqqtsC5+HKRRvlAeWcwjAKgZnI5YjLKAGPSiqPlpGLqAXjyHMb71ix06mVjsdAiGyr8RWULYFi1utK1I5nI5TiCqSWdY2KggkA7xv3Isg6V3B998MRzcPMhj0DmCpCnKl1CyvWVKWN0Xq91G94kchwvLKRLEqLSMlrsK6AbA2scpRvuNNbb4gq6ZbhomKMrgUEGrVpduZNCU0he5MLf7Wokb3iX4bxDIzA5eJi4LazRewS3NDau4thqBvuNvS0ZjjvDVzCQssZmltkHKsv8AFbA6eq7fcXdtV74mYBDReNF6b+FAGBrcVQIbtsaPbFFbzWX4WjsjKdVkEXJVlTGezbbArf8A64fm45kZzCZF1MCmkkN0l0Z1Km7v7v4jRGx2wpfEGWmgXPCKQxR65RJSD4FdGYrr1HSNQoi9tvTEj4c41lc7AJ8tpKWy/CAQV2II9Nu3yI98BCQZjhbuqLH1FowopgASCUNaqUAvsaFEit6xJcWz+T1GOZdWjp3UkL0CUixv8Kq/1Va6gBgjKcbillmSOMl4GCyWAtEixudyCu9j0IxHcM8e5XMzTwxj7+BgrK21nm8vZq3CuRZrbUK74YEzeIshKi2rMIwhAo2tiMp2be7T3r1rvgbL+JsplUkZFddmO6gbQxhVXZr6VQJvvt+eJPg3HEzLTpDFGTBJynOvp1aRqAIj3A+EmvTAGS8fZaRI3ZVVJMw2VJ1WUkpqDDSAA2kUb/GvzpgVls9kHdY1iOrmEKKGzKVTUDr2rQtEb0l12wnjOby0E2hsqpGpS7UCSGWeW1Fg2JI7PuW23rEhkc0MxLKrQKjZaXQNe97JIrrXoQVIvex8sR3hTzEjzk2ZiZDE2XJsk2GVWKsdu1EevcH5HDFTnDOTPAAIqj9EdR7X8O9Hq3B3Bu8PTcEy7EloY2J7kopuxXqPYAYq3jPzEOQbL6oSRmGKiz1KAVssvp8Y6bvvdHbFiPEqkEUgCuQSu9iQDvpujYsWp9NxYsjOX8h9+DwkhhFGGUkq2kWCe5Bqxdn9cex8Ij1aiiFv3ioJ9PWr/CP0HtivcC8UTzzTQOI4JYiaRlZuYlL94rCQWvWvptYv2xW/Fvmlm+Hyus2WjOlkClWanUh7aydvg7Ufi+Rxqc2+GtOfKIVC6V0iqFChW427CsKiQLsAAPlhjhufWeGOVL0yKGXUCDRF7g9jh8LjIcvHY8vHmCELhy8NxnfCziNVxGKr5k+IFyuTNjVzHVCoIBKk3ILO26Bl/vDFpJxlHmp4K4pnJxyNM2XIBCOyrymqiBZFhqDXvvt6DGuZLfUv4XbPziOeDNobimCwykdiHNwSfk7aL9pvlgzieRRsxlJSOuOSQKfYPBJqH56V/QYyyPwx4lWD7MhgGXC6AhMR6T+Gypba+97Vt2GJubw/4gfKwn7RGmahkeyXVlkRgaY2hAddTJ23U+4318/6mjHKjxK1E8w5DYEdP7S9yN/T2wjgr54cQzy5rl/Zmky7EI1qNShVHVTU4VQ9gAkH0OK43gvxIZ/tHPy/OKaOYOXq03em+T2v2xZvL3wHm8vJmpuITrO2ZRUZNRcMBfxFgB2OkKBVE4tyftFf8wLXxLwx/wB7kj/5zj/zYtfiPxOuV4vkYkIJzStHMo9iyiF69w2sX+6W9hUB4m8reIPmI5crnUcQ/sftIuSHewBJoYuAexbcfXfB/gnylaDMHN56f7TmN6rUVBI0lizdTGjQ2AH6VdmCd47Gq8Lz6qABozuw7bmVj/M3ik+WviCPIcJgmdVEUmZMc0lb9RcK1+oTSt/Jtu2Cs75QZ9ncR8VlSEs2hCZTSk7KacA7bX6/ngSbyNzbpy34o7ID8BRyo9ukzV/LCfOZp61KFF58jAC2jisgd6MoFkd9v5YyzwNwpm4pxhP2cjNIY5NO6HnsQwsbi9JI7Gqwf4j8sELxH+0JYDyo4yiq5EjIqoXChxpsabG++/qcSPhHyqOSzK5gZ6aUqCpVlFOpG6m2Jq6P1AxNkn5U/wCVfhyXJQSRzvqlZxI9NqCm2Qi/U1GrE+7fLGX5HwbmM3HxWNNayxzJNHGQRzKbMLsD6lSdJHcivXGl+LfJ7K57MtmGlliZwNSppokbauobEir+l9ycP+EPLCHh0/OizE7EqVZWKaWB9wEvY0Qb9PrhOpPf2Ylsj4iyyu+qeJSBGp1SKvUuoMOog2D3xQfK2BjmeLKNJZ3WRBqBDgTTEbg1R2F/xYsviPym4fnMw2YlEiu9auW4UEgVqrSdyO/vh/wz5Y5HITieDnBwGXqksEMKIIoX6H6ge2JskMql+c2djzaZJ4CXZJnV0A642Ojpde6NakUfY4N8x/GccmayeWybiXMJmke0OpR3QJY2JbWbF7AG++LZ4p8tMhn35ksbLL6yRtpZgNurYhvqRe1Xj3wt5b5DIPrhjLSVQkdtTKCNwPwrfuADW2LOucMrPvG3HkPGMpPlswgEcgjdtagpbqjBkYhiKJB29/bZ7z34jE+WhQlVzCS9cd9SqUeyPUoTVN9Ox2xdeM+UnDczM88sT65DbaZGUE+pobWe59zZwVxny6yWaSFZ42fkroRi7htNAUzAgt2vf1v3OE6kwyrFw+S40+ar/QYf1b4bjhAUD0AAH5Y4kDHNo6Gx5jxHHpj3EQ0rb4o3jXziymQlMIRp5l+JUICp60zG9/kAfnWLsDvj5L8W5aSPP5lZb1iaTVfrbk39CCD9Djp/HzOr6dXGtj/SKh0MTlJA+2leYpU7722mxtv8Jv5YsHh3zV+1ZHOZv7Po+yi9HMvX0lvi0DT29jjGMx4rhljCNw3Jr2poxKjfqJN/zvGleUfE8hKk2T+zcppl1MjOzpMoFGtW4oNdWbG97Y31xJPwzLaGb/SFe/8A9j+s/wD+LE94H83m4hm1y7ZVY9Su2oS6vhW6rQO/1xkPjrhyR8SzcUaqiJI2lVFBRQNAen/3xqHkTw2E5eSXloZUmKiTSNQUxJ0hu4Hfb5nDrnmc7hLbWrj6YTNKqqWbYKCSfYAWT+mOMo9x/TFT8z+K8rIOgPVOeUPoQS/06FZb92GOMm1tn7eeWcd25eXy4Tcrq1ltN9N0w3rvXri8+XHjl8/zUmVElj0mkuip2vqJOzCjv6rjHouGwLk5JjLEs6zKqRFhqeOqYhTvuWUj1qM++CvAXihctnopCQAx5ch/hc0T+RCt+Rx3vEs8YlrTPN3xtmeHR5dstouRnDa11fCqkVuK7nGar528Ub8cIv2hH/icfQWeySSxvG4tHVlYe4YUR+hx8kcX4XJlMzLA3xQuyH50dj9CKP54n8eWZh141HinmRxNcvk5A6gypMZG5KkalmZV7il6Qv1wJwjzB4xPKVWRnGiT4IEPVyXZPhTvqAoevzw1xnxp9r4Vk4C1yKx5m+55SgR376g4P1Q40jyq4XyeHqx7zMZPy+Ff5Lf97C5zPwT1kfE/MniiHQ2bmRgSGBRVKnbYjQCP0w5w7xFx3MLrhfPSpZGpFJFjuLC1YvAHmTlGfiecA7c8dzXdV/x/riS8Gcb4pl4hDl0lMPMNlcvro2NfVoO9V67XjfmbGf2HyvjDiaziOTNZrWsgV0Z2BXqAIYdvyxY/MriPEMtnZn5uaiy7yKsJSRgn7MagoB77E/riW40vAEzs7SrNzxKTJpMtar1HswFXXywX5vyibK5J17STBhY3poWbt716Yxvs8azxnGR4vxHMyCKHM5x3a6UTP6LqPd/YH/jbDWd8Q8Ry8rRvmc3HLFsQ0r/XcaiD3+e1YJ4FDmUzSNlP23WV0r36DqoPs3RZ/oLqx24guYnkkzJd3ZgXIGl+kUV+EqCAoGkirAGOjLX/ACv8UZjOZSRcz1SxELroDWGWxdbah6kV3HreMK8S8Iz2RkWPNGRWZQwPMLBh22INHfvj6O8GQZVMpH9kWomBbq+Insxf+KxR9BQA2rAnmF4NTiWVMdBZUtoX/dauxP7rdj+R9Mcee86/xuzxg3l+Wl4jAuuiS1amq7RhQJ9Tew9cQcHC5ZJxBH95IXEa6TYZr02D6j1v23wPJA8UhVgUdGII9VZTRH1BGNe8ivCAJbPSDtaQD+Tv/wCQf38d+r8+sSb40Ty48OzZHh8eXn061aQnS1imcsN6HvjsWPXjseO9a6/IeRHSWjurWQfb/i8fP/jzxllc3m5EzGRFxSNHzopSshVHK+qlCaGwYGu11j6KnzET9m3Hbvikv5R8Madp3SQuzmRgXOkktqIK18JJ7e2O0zjqs+2Mkm4HwowloJ82JK6Y5Yk3PcAkEUL7sPfsbozvgbKcrMpOSzR5WKWVtI7KIW2Fmty9Dfcg+21obwLwMzGNYpQ+tl0B5O6tGrAaj2++Q99wbGwxaOEwcOGWMUIjjhmQht9JYFQhDMTq1UwG5sXhe5hOXzz4z4ymZz0+Yi1BJWBXVQNaQDdEgbqfXtWLT5beZsHDYZY5IpZC8ocFNNVpC76iN7Hti7L5ecE+ziYRO8doKEz2pdlUArrGk9a2PQYPm8t+BxGnjjBG9NPJYsgA/tPUkD8x74t75szE+awZpVfM61saptSqfQGSwDi+eYXjQZ6fSLiXL81QCbJbXTNsOxVQK+u+L43gzgcZH3cAIJ7yOaIv3c0QVPf2Ptg1uA8ELljHlizEkncliTZ233JbsPfD+yW/g+azxBw3+zGzByRd43SAsZ5NRLJ+0HovUL0haxRk4YdxdjtsO/fH0Rkcnw4wypHBDyVkjBGgaHLaNLjY3Rega7g71vjxMhwoRc4ZfLGOxuIB3KhhtovdSD29RiTvDEZ5X+M5c6jxSoA+XSIFwxJksMNRFbHov88UXz38O6M3FmlFLOuiQ/xoNrPzSh/cONb4HLkxIy5aNEYrbaItFhXZNzpF0ysvyN4bzXiDJyBRKutDpI5kVruSFPUPk2/eg3tjM6zrY1Z4+ceAQB8wka/EzBVqviYgL+pI/r6Y+l84fsuTflgfcQtpvt93Gasf3RiFbjuTRVkiyyBrF/dICnQZD1L3YKOyn1+RGJaHxGjc410RBfqbeSMirr4o9t97w76+iTHz3xXPyZiZ52I1yEE0uxJH4bPsoHf1PbEzwTxjn8rFy4K0lmY6owx1Ebm/nWNbPjAFyI0tSYdJII2aVkfVvt0pqX3u6IwUvi8FQeRNuFIG19SBxsD2ogX2BDA1pONff6xMYZPJPmJHlkhlZ5WDOVj2JAvsBsNv1xeeLQ5qYQQlJOXHFCVAT4G+zpuWC2SCW2+XYemgT+IHXQRDI4eIvQ1albp6D00NifzrarIb4txadJAEiZkADGgSWtJiy7KQCGSL83HocS9b+jGWZThWcifmwpMjhTRERJXaq3UgkgtvXtXrh/xT4IzAzTSiKR0mPM1opJQsAWVlG4Oq96rf32xqOY4nKsOtYCX1Acve69SaX0O21ja73wPJxjNXS5Y1Y3N9i7C+3ooVv71Yn3dX5UHw75fTvIhmEiRRkkFrVt21EIpOpdRokmvXue118wFzJyE32Tmc/o0cq9f7RdVVv8N/leH14vnCFJywW/iBJJXt+RNEtX8JXY74TluK5xnUPlwqkpqOq6BvVRujp6f59+2M3q26uePn+Xy84tIzO+UnZmJZmYbsSbJNmySTjQvKLgfFMtmdGYSaPLCN9KMw0ByykUobv8RuvfF9n4jnNbBcupUMQpJA1DWoBvVt0lmJrsBte2D+CiblkzAh9cho1spclQKJ2AIA3vbGuv5LYzOYkcdhsqT2x7ji6G4oKw6r4WownUPTAVyXPcPGYaYipUe2bQ+zBWgv4aqldL7Eqd7GBMrLwtGBTVrUqRXNtSyoi/TUqqovY3XqbXm+PoJgqZXUFeRXIjU23MI1Buy9as7X6MG9cM5DjMaDlrkpSFLAlkvuygknRZHUb/2K32xtl63FcikZhSNuuVLjLMCdEscIYHVYrlqQLF6N63wZw/iGVzrOpj1F7DbNpdAzBC243KrdEbVXph/hfEec4ByfLDfjYDbpB3GgEHcD/wAe4w/wzPysxV8sY95OvcDZyB3AvUAD8yb7b4VVU4ZxmLmlZoVbVzi5ILEkyRqioSaKFMzqJbsWbewTiWPFMoXWssBbfEyLdiWNNhqu7kJs7iiaN79FxzMqI9WU0lyqqmo2SYWl0i0ABtShuqIYnaiZAcRzpZR9n0g6Cxu6GtAy9xZCl9+1pYsEYaGOGcYycsnJSBUMg5jAhBek2DpBtjYva6/LDnCJ4Z7jGWEcekN1JsSGKVp00aVUPvTAUKx5xKPNDMB441dVYAdhqUrGCSdV2pMtGthtR1YfizedLgNEipYs6rIFn8Or1HzNfPEoieFtmU5rSQ6dEQNIlBmUyI6oN61SKZRXcOt3eO0GMMkOVKKUDKOWSAwYgqx0dyoArcbE6iSLmczNndTiNI9IDaCTZJ09IYahQ1Xv8uw7hqQZ7XfRV+42XsdgdyQL3ui22NagRuKTbacm4spdg7WHLb6L6SB7fH6b4XmM1mysLRxMhtdcZo2rKAwJ7qULFhdFuWRRvHqHPMotoRRQHTR3scwHuBQsL9N/TC8o2aRl5rxnVZKjuToWwmwNBg5rfY9xiKByed4hyFRo2DmNQZGO+oxMWNBqvXpA2rftQwdBnc+QhZFXdNYGkmrpty1CvfuQAdidIkxmNr9PX5bY8jnsKV6g24I7URYPzB+XviaYYmlmdsuyggBiZF1CwDC40mjTEOV2F9rw1mnzxDaOWD95p1D59H/Z73+L+HB00oUFz2AJb6AXf1GGV4xCVvWKF3diqFkm+wA9e2BgTKxZ3WDK8egFtgBZFjTe1dgb+ZHphr+z80GcrKgDSaiattPN7AlCL5XSNu/6iX+0pt1Lv26hv9N9+4/XHZvPrEFLX1OiCvd2Cr+Vkb4CKjyOeC/tomN9ylbaVHoO96j+Yw5luFzhpWaRCzxhFYLupBcg1QU1r/OvnQkMxxSONlUsNTMqgWLtrIsXsNsJh43AyqwdRq7AsLNkgbX6kbYCLfhWYNapY2PVqOitQLbLsfhCmqPcgYO4Hl5IYljciQrsDVbAAAflWEcW4zDGwRm0klbPbSGWRgSTsB9y4/4vDuUzQf4GDAGjRB3/AOCP1xNXBjyk+gx2FhMdgh1RhvDyDHrJhhoeGJUvSoWyWNepJsn6k74rvCYOIRxRk0zG+YJDqKgMoWiZa1EM7WNjpQELucLl8PZtpuYJ0AVpNFDdVeQMVvTVlQBqNkH0PfB8fDc3ynVpxrL2jKvZdIGk/wB4Ftveu2NSYmh+HZrPGUCZIgnZtLAkHS5NdVmiI/Tsze2EZrL5/ms0ToRcgQOenS3K02FF9JWTfc7+xwv/AJMuEiCzASJNJIXo22svt3/dYDexS+2GP7BnNgZ5rFixqsExIBY5nfYyUf3/AG3xUGZuHOMI+WY7F69QHfWmkjpNdHMG3qR3GB48tndVGaPWCjMoN0lkduXY1aTv2J1dqvDeVynLzCiTOF21no3rdGOhus1erUL70Kw4/AkL805pqZx+IUakZtGq7rqZau6J/IF5ThOb5kRmlR1jKt2o3yZEaqQCi0m3yUepwqbgc/PlkSYKJCCBpsgBEUKTV1auaHYtqFmwQcrkcsyg/aC2hqqRx1mIspJ3rS7Rs1gH8RHqME8OmhgjWLnqyGPTpBUnVqAZuYauhIijV3oHvsWDyTg88WtxmAq2Xbp9leyaG+7K1VXT23x2XMvIHNmKF5F0uG1WHUKo7DSNRB9rAvYkYYg4Hky6os7OxA0jWtnraQdl33Vtu1L22wvNRZFwivL8CBB1EbJ1b7UT03v+Q33VSs3l1iiiy4mZHLEhwpN9dUaO28iDc+35L4nwxJpFYymMqtUrUT1BvRhXb2PcfTA2XyGVSKPMHmIC1jWSabUvcAf/ANK9/RcMzZjJln1Jam3B6+rmBkahV0dZ27GwR2FARk+HxqXP2hmoDV958Pbv1Gg1XR723oawBluF5NQFOZDhWiGkupFghlXTVUwFkevxfPBS57KBZFYbFm1rTbmMhfWqI0qfka3PfCo/swSXMIllD1FtWxRaGxbsFcgVWxI7HEUnghy3KmSKUvGoBkO/SDCoBB0gHoUNte5PvhlMpkXK0dTGkGzgnTYA+HY0jX76W9jhWX45ll6Y4W6tEZBAA09CDUbIpUf17hSPTCE4vDqjK5d0Na1FIAbOkMxF1XMc3Yq3vFQ4UyQlKuGV0elFuS+kLPYruAX1H239KwVl87l3y+7O8cDRdbElmZdDobBtjqK9+574HXji6m1ZUk36KDdSSRgkkbkqitVbKe57YNy/EwYBIuWbrYqUCi6Aar23B06RYq3A2G+IqPz3EckWZuWWl1Ls2tbNHffYUob0/CBhcHE8gpUohDABlpTdMVQEAna+Yo/Mfu7FRzzDKxvylMsnxgJ8FoxG2mzpYKvUB3398L4Vn5pGCvlzH07ufVtRGw0jY1q3r4h374X8Ijs/xrJMSZY2Y6WBtSLCoxI+IX0ysK79Z7YmuCzROp5alArFSpFUaB7WRW/oa9sReT45NLGjjKGm0EG7FMLLDpBIXsdrJ7XiX4PmZHUmSPlHUQF7nb1OwG/ysfPGa0kBjzCsdgCAcdjgce40wp+ROVTOTdciPHI8jq2lUpgbcerIxci9zqRQa0rY2Z4fk5Z5WlzKHXIGRVcVRgCD0+Kw7KVO3obsYIz3GMi2Ykjlj1UK19RNtKUkFXaAPBGRXc0QNrwjgK5GaZgnNcuDJT6tKatf8VAldQ29FF9W+NVIVHwLISOAuYLM5NKrrvqCkgUtgUnYEUCQK7YMm4Vk8rIsjsVa3catwSFVnNBdjUQO1UFpaBIMXJnsm8RAyrqhJQ2oQglBZU6+kqpstX4e9i8SmTzkGaheSeBWaEMGBUN+DUdNkmiu1He7BwUjRlc1mGUanJBdiCQoaPQukih1aZFvD2SXIyBIAn7MuqoQ22kvEw+YIjfudwt4XDm4UgXMpCFLELWlVYa5VQgn21UT70PlhiPjpUF1ycl21UAGO5JJ22NrvZu2TvZqelRz8R4cAjCNimsamYygrcUkitv3PXYHpzLHbZ+TifDNTWjFieqw5Nkk79W1stG/Vd+wwXleM6ha5MkCwCAK2OmhS3sSbFfvVZ2wfBmn5cjcgBlcKqgHdTpGrdQSAGJoC6WqvbFRH8SzEGViWeKAayrFCdtJWCWRQ3V6jUm2/XgR+K5FVLDKmlZgehO4VtVW2+ykWNj2GJeCfMch3dGEmttMYq1UPQAOnfp3ve96+Qz8ezQrVlgCSFUaiNRKagt+5bpvsKJwUqficKxQ1EdLMdCBVOllaveh1E0fniLmzEbxsHyjPuaCxqLUSHRQI36RZFV8txiY+150/wCpQG+5JquYF7arJ021fL51hEbZtpIyyKqBiW0t6aJBR6txq5ZBr32FbxTGdCLCHjiL6LTSim2AJVlI02epe57ne97w2mfnuNEgdVEgDMQTa6wh/De4JfV6Be++HXXNpK+kK6GQEamGy0oYDq+THtsfrhnKZ7NyBOlBqWNzsR3ssD7NYG3t33wBM+azavLpiQqqkxne2alpSNQ7kkX/AAn3GEfac4dX3YFLY+bcxxv19tAU/VvqB4sWfo6pYwaFELYvStk9Ivq1UBW1b77EiKblgNJ18xTqUEAgOraTXuoK9t/zxFMPLnCrUqqQsZFgUT0cwE6zVdVHfsPbqVNJmwG0aSQ40khaKaTZPVdlq9tvqaXLw+dowhm6rJLAEWNBAG38RDflWGYuFZjSoGaoLtsoogAAAe1UfU98PESHFObrj5RGm+qzVjmRkgAmiSgk3qx6EWbbzIzWs6OWV1LV+iUuo++q9fy+H54G/seY6dWYJKtYsdvT0I9C4v8AiHtWH4MjKrhhPzFumDe1k2KNah0j6X74ih/sOa+zoLjWVGBGnZa5ZFUBRGtu1dh74kOF8zS3NdGcMQdHZdht7+t777jAed4WzSFhmjHbLS32OhxXxjvqDVX4Bthzw/Aic1VkMpEgDse+oQxDc31EgKxI9SR6YuIlSmOwtMdiBanHpbHi4URior+a4pPzXX7IdKslSgg6wXQGhoJ2VyTfYK+4q8I4DxGdnIng5a6A4bSVCHlw6k3UWC7yGyfwH0rBWWykwfOENWsryjq1aCIVX4TYXrtqrfVfrgBk4gAFZ4bawFfT2Cx2dh1/62wK/D6Y0hX9rZssxSJnSQsEIIARAzIG3WyWrXvYplobGyM5m85y4ysNMWjZgJBsO7JuBXopPzNdsOcJfMowSfS2uyHDClIVKjCaQd/vG2JoKffA0/C85zTIkq7lx1H8BZmUVyzWnUAN/Q771gG81mM9IhH2aPdSRqYGnV7U0X37Kw7UR8qJmUXNF4g9CNbJYNbNSsqhjfVdq3bv7VumHhU5y00cktySqwDi+ktGF22FANbUPfDC8MlBaJMyVKkNoAI0o0rlVBAFAoumxuCh/eOCl5DK51FIAirUzAbn43ZiLBoBSa7bgjsQRhOXhzts2uI6gB3sBlVrG1ADWaJ70B6jBUXC5DlnhknLOysOZuCLXv3vvZ7jbb0w3k+EGN9X2k6dbNoBpbeRpP3v4tNdiLNG9iOyHPGadWZWWtbUD7BErahq0lqF7qw9Rjny+bdmZHWNWZqDJ1AVpU/Dfpqo0aIBrCc3FDJNrGYCEqooMKYKWrfUARqzC/mAPXAeY4NHEnMfNvpCXdjqURhTW5sEC9vVjgC04Zmx/rgCRuas+liyvbeSva171WHs9kJWa0lKdJX1O97Grq/8AOxOAP7LhjIaTMOCApKu6g9MYHUL3IClvrZx3Gxl5SjmTUxkEK6CvxjmWCSDpKguSfTSPUUSjuIZFmHTKYzRGw7kige/of8AgHDMWS0rJqnJLDZrPRVna2rsRfY/P2imy2VVowS4YnQV1C1IBYBtIJZiUAsEkmvc4TNl8hS9RI1LR3PYKFAGnqDckLXrv3vEUZPwxERnaeVgTGCdVj9pGO17W1g79nPehS9EGlFMxJjRVvUOr0B32JblsD7jUDtgrhsWXkiaOOjGG3XqFMCrdjRG9H/1OIiHiWUjY3EVC7qdRJJ5mYVhWr3VyN9w5HsMA9leFZaVdazSVoVjbAslxGtRo01Sau/ejjkiyglUKykbPrJFAIS2gED1E1kH8BJPbdUE+Wiy0rRoAjPyytCioPL/AAnccsFt9yO+E/2jkF7Q3tXwDcMQvq3rpAs12APoMVHJksgrfGTRJ9KsaI6IC0SbUAG71EjfcFcIy0LEiEtpilVrsEP9yE2sbCtrHfSSDvhORbLmIskRcq9dagNqeQGr9KtD8gF9sMZbjMAfUuWcPVgrGq3r07fF/sgk+x7ViKI4lDkjK5kYhyV1fFt91JXpQGjmbjbv64K8NGHTKIQQgdQCSSGHIi0lbFhdBVR/s3ZvDHE8zEJHU5bW+jVq5am9tO5JBPevoTv3w74enLGU6FRdQqkKFibNm+55ZjF+4b8n6RLuxx2OfHYzjR2PCy1YSgwo40yrPEOBSc53SeRRLKjMEbSFASJWLdW/RCyjSLuUE/ACHuIeHOdNzVmZDqRgACSpVGTY6wACG7V73d7RvFFyLZqUTcxWGm3s0W0JQUBT2DIPYltO9gYXl85w/LoyxG0mJElFulaYM112BtbBuz7jF9QZPw5OQkZzZGksS5bdrjZN+sep17GtS7AejC+GopVCnMu5O46usVEY6B1EjTqD1vTd7vZOUg4ZfJUEli69QfuUpgWIoEB679Jc9iTibj8OQqdShlawdQdrNPrqyexOxH7pI7YCAz3A8tHq15iQEJqEauAaCt8I9bBrfuABfrhf2XKLFOEzABniKdRB02XANAatnlIok1sBVYsU/CYZG1vGrNp02e9EMKv6SMP7xwOPD+WAK8oUxs7tudRazvubJ3+fthoi81wLJR7yMQZLaxvqA0sa0r8IOn5CwBQYgiZPh+QVydRc610AK7FRyV6TSmzpUvZ3AKkV3Nq+xR9PSDo2X+EUBt+QH6D2x5/ZUX4UVSANLKotaXSCNtiF2Hy27YaK9LkcksCuCRHINAbrIKiNbIAqvu8sGDnsV1b3u9nuIZGb4wXNKtBXvr2UUKO4ksewa9sTTcJi0xLp6YiCg2oUpQbVXZjh05ZP3V/Qe9+3vv8AXfAV7xJLlY3HNjDNJ8RNjpNIxsEb0FBHqAL2Aw2nFsq4VFRmQurC17M9yhgSbG+s2KohgMWSWNT3AP1F/wBcNBx2ofLYfXEVB8TzOWhkCvFZIUghVPpIL3INgI/b3HqcKyE8MrKqwUCGOoqtDSSp/PqH5SfXE2JB7DDYC6i1DUQBfyBND+ZwVWpeJsrs8eVJIjYL0kGwNZHSDtsoIq7G14fk4xICxXKu1Fx2I1VpII+7vfUR+RxYdQ9seaR7YgieK5qdSoijsEKx2PcSRgqdqA5Zf59O3bHsCSSpI7Q8uSgVBJJ1IG0XfTsTY9LO+4xLGP1rcYcrAVzKS5tCwWEUVB6mNFgXBPq1soU73poD1wuTP57uMuCaO2rb4bH4hRLdN9h88WEDHBcNETw7isskcp0AMjMEU6gDQ6bJ2Nn29Kuj2f4UZi0jTbWwCKDsF0LvVnctq/puADg80cdWJoQ+OwhxjsaQSuF4bu8OA4hQOZ4TCzM5iQs3xEiyfh/yJ/1V9hjwcJhNHlRmiSOgbE7mtvffBkik4804m1YE/seD/wBxD2r4F7UBXbtQA+gGDb+WEnHoGG0x7zMQ2ezGYvNhA3TCpg6Px6JLANdR1BNt++JSsLBHbCUsQeX4tmnbSMrpGoAs11WoqWF1/C1d9OruRh+ebNtArLGEkJIZRuVBRuxJA1B9IvcbEgG8TCkY92xdZQ/Bps0xAnRVAXdgd2OojsGNbAH17+lVgHJS8QWNVdULBVGpmBLVGCxPXude3zFk1tdhI+WIvM8GYzc1ZAL5NhlDUInZ6W+2rXue4Kgi8JVwBJnc0QOqD0LDWvbQSfxehon5e/fHsubk5SHnwCRSxkBZAANL6R69m0n07H5jAqeDDyUjaQAoOmRQdStTAFSTQAutHYhpP39lS5GKf7TocKJIxGfuyOUyPKpJ1EdRaRtjV1e4ONeBefMoZNM8KSrGwdWIo6mUqSvfsjC9tyasWMGZbjCKDzZIx+z0sGDcxZAAjUo21OSg9ytjvgZ8hzJzL9oUOyhAun91nYgDmbmpCNwa7ijVRrcBgVmj51AhGrpoCOdpdIN9genR6KB9cTxVlg4rE5pXVjt27i1LC/a1BIJ9jgu8VcNl1kvnfeIlLKCgFOrqq96fSY7CkEggd7a5iHi8TFUVwzGwKF9gSboUPgbftYIxKo6OMKCBdEk7knv7We3y7YdWsQH/ACog1OrkoyFrVlbVQu2rTenb4hamxROHz4lgAJLEAartHHwrqYUVuwouu+49xiCbsY8OAMlxaOVmVbtKskUCbYUL7kFDeC9WIYXqxwPzwkrhCR1gHCox7hJo47G2Typj1tschwibGb+F/ZSveOBw0rYURiauFlwMNZjNoil3IVR3ZiAB9SdhjpcVPzE8Ky57LxLFoYxTLKYpCQkwFgoxHbv/AFxZ7cSzxPyeKsmgGvNQLZoXKgvYHbq9mH6j3wrI+I8pOW5M8UmgW+h1bSN9zR2Gx7+2Ms4n5Y5uSKMR5bLQsc02YKxyVyl0oojBZSCTWo0NIKjpPoTwjwJxKDK5zLqsI+1SWZDN1qhsOLEVElduw3YmvTHSyf8AWWiZnxZko4FnbMRLC50rJqBVjvsCO56T+hwxB45yDxSzJmo2jhrmMCTo1GhYAvc7Chii5fy54guRzWS/5vyZpA8ZaRtUfWCRSxBd9INAAA3tvh/hXlvnsuuYVZ4Cuah5cgcO5vRy/wBoRqoKSR86FVvhnP8A09XGXxxkRlvtXPBgLaOYFcjV7UF1fnVYDTzK4cwYiY9AUkcqUEhm0jSCltZ22vFdTy74gcmco+ah5PIEIQK5G0ok1nb4qGn2qtvXDGW8oJhC0LZiHSwUfsi/aUSEkudRvcbEd/TDOV2r/wAI41BmkLwMWVWKm1ZSGABIIYAgix3GKv4h8T8Oy8s8My5gsxEsmmMkActY9QIrp0hVvtd73iU8E+EW4fHIjzcwO+pVAYLGKql1Mzb9+/t9TCeLfLM57NPM2YCgoEVeSG0gb2GLjfVZ1UCAaxJ8yntgfMeOuHZWYlYs0aQShlS10SBSHGpwdPwi62/XBXGeP8Og0AwyS64hOVjQkpFpoSMCw0hRsPUV6YGz3lAkzqZc1IyrCsIBjUkKqUDqJPVq6rq6Om6wRnPLCN44wc1meYkbxPKGGqSNiSY2sGgLofL32q7yegeJeO+HxSspyzt92kyPqUCRWNqygvdkys3bVeo9xeCuM+MUyc0IfI6XkUSAtKi6WtrUnqpgZGHz1HD2c8qcrK+ppJgvKSFUBSlRNOkC0J7rdk3ucPTeWOXkEYknzTcpdCXIvSt3X7P6D6AYm8rlSvBmTNQLK2WETPrUxuNx1spG4GzVdVRvFUXx08kzZY5GDnrMsWhpQSdatbj7ndQsYJPtXyBufB+DR5SAQRatClj1GzbMWJJoXuThuLwxlhnPtgj/AOcadOqzVVV6e11tftiTqaZVMbx6y5l4hlMsJIZCP2hB+PQzKeWF7Sk7kfE3vvy+bE65z7NJl4RWZ5DESMK6iCwZkCUKvcgn2xZX8tsgzM7RuxZtTXLIQxu7I1Ud/fHr+XHDm16suG5jam1O5trJv4u+539jWLvKZVd475o5rL5ybLLBl20DUrGRxqUxmRbOkKp0DeyBZ7kb40LhufWWNWBUkqpYKwbSSASLBPa8QWY8vOHyOzNCdT7NUkgsVQWg4FAbAdgBiT4H4ey+VLiCMRiRtb0SbNVe5P8ALEt5/S5UmRWOwu8diDkbCybwMrj5g+uHBKMQV/jmS4h9o15Vl5fLA0u3SW+9s6e/doz/AHDuOzexx8U1KWOXC9eoC7+DookHs+5+V/LFiEo98e8we4xRVs9wjOyxw3KqyLGRKUd1Vm5sTAgKO2hHF9xrrsTgl4s+ezwjv2vb73Uv+rP+r+7P5mrxPMwwnWO2Jqo3P5XMSxKvQr8xS/U1FUfUACBfUFUEezMN8CQ8Izqoqfa/hAGoxqSaUje73J0k7n8XuKsBGODfTFRApwjMBrObNkAEiNQSAXI+Qov6D64kXyTiXmK+xChlIJ6RfY33v1r1N3tRrsMATZBWv7yQWxawwBFqVobbCj+ov3sI3NcBjYsGnZSddqPZ5GftZ7atj32H0JvDY44dYEjsGYtRU7E/MLfah+V9ybXFwtVcMJZjRujJa9ztRG/evyHqLwzF4ahFBTLQAH7VwNh7Ajf/ABPvigg59f4vX8D/AOXCBnxfZ/8AqP8A5cMS8EgLEkM16getiN0KGhdDpJ7D1x4vhjL7UHNCv2j9tjXxdth+mMtCpOJqBZDAe5UgfqRhH2wX2IvtYq/8ceR+G4QGXSNLCmUkkHexsT6H+pwl/C+WJsxqd73/APXDImiEnVuzD8jh6JcD5bgsMbakjVTVWBVf4YNrEUOy4VGu5x0mFLE3qD+mGU056YbrCyxrthqsMoVthSnCYlvDpwkTXgOOxxx5io//2Q==" style="height: 177px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 136px;" /></span></span></span></pre>
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1856- November - John C. Fremont, the first candidate for president under the banner of the Republican </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Party, loses his bid for the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>presidency to James C. Buchanan, despite support for Fremont from </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Abraham Lincoln. Buchanan, the only bachelor to become<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>president as well as the sole </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Pennsylvanian garnered 174 Electoral College votes to 114 for Fremont. Millard Fillmore, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">running on the American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Know-Nothing and Whig tickets was also defeated</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1858 the Republicans won control of the House of Representatives for the first time</span>.</span>
</span></span></pre>
<span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1860</b> - Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln elected president.</span><br />
-As the 19th Century came to a close, the American electorate changed
more and more rapidly. The Democratic Party embraced the immigrants who
flooded into cities and industrial centers, built a political base by
bringing them into the American mainstream, and helped create the most
powerful economic engine in history. Democratic Party leader William
Jennings Bryan led a movement of agrarian reformers and supported the
right of women's suffrage, the progressive graduated income tax and the
direct election of Senators. As America entered the 20th Century, the
Democratic Party became dominant in local urban politics.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1912- November 5, 1912 - In the first election of a Democratic candidate
since 1892, Woodrow Wilson overcame a three way race for the presidency
when former President Teddy Roosevelt donned the nomination of the
Progressive Party to tackle the election against Wilson and incumbant
President and Republican William Howard Taft. This split
caused the election of Wilson, who garnered 435 Electoral College votes to 88
for Roosevelt and only 8 for Taft.</span></pre>
1964- November 3, 1964 - President Lyndon B. Johnson wins his first
presidential election with a victory over Barry M. Goldwater from
Arizona. Johnson extended the Democratic victory by former
running mate John F. Kennedy with a 486 to 52 thrashing of the
Republican candidate in the Electoral College and over 15 million
surplus in the popular vote.<br />
1994- November 8- The Republican revolution concludes with the midterm
elections when for the first time in forty years, the party gains
control of both the Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives.
<br />
<b>2009 </b>January - First "Tea Party" rally held in protest at
Obama administration's plans to bail out banks and introduce healthcare
reform. The populist and libertarian movement acts as focus for
conservative opposition to the president's reform plan
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<br />
<b>THE WAR OF 1812.</b><br />
<br />
-The United States begins to build up its navy with the launching of
three ships. The U.S. frigate United States in Philadelphia
on July 10, 1797; the Constellation in Baltimore on September 7; and
the Constitution (old Ironsides) in Boston, September 20. The
Constitution, a 44 gun frigate, would immediately see service against
Barbary pirates of the coast of Tripoli.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSfJ46kl7DeTG_mJT9SSL1JzjzBqMp736EjEW2kLuz8hQYLcoYw8A" data-sz="f" name="k085kixC3LVbKM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSfJ46kl7DeTG_mJT9SSL1JzjzBqMp736EjEW2kLuz8hQYLcoYw8A" style="height: 184px; margin-left: -5px; margin-top: 0px; width: 248px;" /><br />
<br />
1806 - The British blockade France; American ships are caught in the middle and the British seize approximately 1000 US ships.<b> </b><br />
<b> 1807</b> June - The American ship <i>Chesapeake</i> is fired on by the British ship Leopard after refusing to be boarded. This creates an international incident.<br />
<b>1807</b> December- Thomas Jefferson attempts "peaceful coercion"
of the British with his embargo but it results in economic disaster for
merchants<br />
<b> </b>1809-1817- James Madison is president<br />
<br />
1812 - June 28- America declares war against the British. This war
is known as "Mr. Madison's War" or "The Second American Revolution."<br />
<b>1812-15</b>
- War of 1812 between the US and Britain, partly over the effects of
British restrictions on US trade during the Napoleonic Wars.<br />
<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQvCh7EkyxPyxnuPslyB2Elsn4m1_t_55X_FHj1m2C38EYTR889JQ" data-sz="f" name="6L3a7kP-FuxmQM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQvCh7EkyxPyxnuPslyB2Elsn4m1_t_55X_FHj1m2C38EYTR889JQ" style="height: 179px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -7px; width: 240px;" /><br />
<br />
1812 - Aug. 16- U.S. loses Ft. Mackinac as the British invade American territory.<br />
1812 - Three attempts are made by the U.S. to invade Canada. They all end in failure.<br />
1814 - Dec, 24 Treaty of Ghent. The British and American diplomats agree to return to the status quo from before the war.<br />
1815 - Jan. Battle of New Orleans. Andrew Jackson
scores a huge victory and paves the way to the White House. 700 British
are killed, 1400 are wounded. The US only loses 8 soldiers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>STATE-FEDERAL RELATIONS. </b><br />
<br />
1833- March 2- The Force Bill is signed by President Andrew Jackson,
which would authorize him to use troops to enforce Federal law in South
Carolina, if necessary.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1860-61
- Eleven pro-slavery southern states secede from Union and form
Confederate States of America under leadership of Jefferson Davis,
triggering civil war with abolitionist northern states.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1867- Southern states
readmitted to Union.</span></span><br />
<br />
<b>THE CIVIL WAR.</b><br />
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1862- August – Union loses Second Battle of Bull Run
- December – Union loses Battle of Fredericksburg and over 12,600 men, South loses about 5,300.
- Slavery is abolished in the District of Columbia.</span> </span></span></pre>
<br />
<b>1863</b> - Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation, declaring slaves in Confederate states to be free.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">March – Conscription enacted </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">- Union defeat at
Chancellorville: Union loses 17,000, South 13,000</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">- July - Battle of Gettysburg –
Major Union victory – defensive battle - Draft/race Riots in New </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">York City</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="B4JhPWoYe2h2zM:" 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+g1rWwNT6W1EaLxYgzC4VvutNf8A6SGIw7WvygWka63ndeLEAMZ8TuwCTpYZrgSR8hfVYsQJYlognqY8pQXMkH+UmP6rFiD/2Q==" style="height: 132px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 176px;" /> </span></span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>1864- </b>Sherman marches through Georgia, Lincoln re-elected<br />
1865- April 9 – Lee
Surrenders</span></span><span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">-April 14 – Lincoln shot, dies next
day. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">- May – Remaining
Confederate armies surrender. END OF CIVIL WAR</span> </span></span></span></div>
<br />
- Confederates defeated.<br />
<br />
<b>December 18- </b>The 13th <b>Amendment</b> is added to the Constitution.<br />
Jun 16, 1866 - The 14th <b>Amendment</b> is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b><b>CRIME, OUTLAWRY, LAW ENFORCEMENT, GUN CONTROL.</b> </b><br />
<i>With help from: http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm</i><br />
<br />
1791- The Bill of Rights, including the Second Amendment -- <i>"A well regulated militia,
being necessary to the security of a free state, the<b> right of the people to keep and bear
arms</b>, shall not be infringed." </i>gains final ratification.<br />
<i> </i><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1837- </span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Georgia passes a law banning handguns. The law is ruled unconstitutional and
thrown out.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1865- </span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">In a reaction to emancipation, several southern states adopt "black
codes" which, among other things, <b>forbid black persons from possessing firearms.</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1871 </span>The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.nra.org/">National Rifle Association (NRA)</a> is
organized around its primary goal of improving American civilians' marksmanship in
preparation for war. (<i>http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm)</i><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1873- </span>July 21- Jesse James and the James-Younger
Gang engage in the first successful train robbery in the American West,
taking three thousand dollars from the Rock Island Express at Adair,
Iowa. <br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1878- February 18- The Lincoln County War begins in New Mexico between
two group of wealthy businessmen, the ranchers and the Lincoln County
general store. William Bonney, aka Billy the Kid, fought
alongside the ranchers in a dispute over seizure of horses as a payment
of an outstanding debt<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">October 26, 1881 - The gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone,
Arizona occurs in a livery stable lot between some of the famous
characters of the American west; Sheriff Wyatt Earp, his brother
Virgil, and Doc Holliday against Billy Claiborne, Frank and Tom McLaury
and the Clanton brothers Billy and Ike. Although only thirty
seconds long, the battle would live in western lore for more than one
hundred years. The McLaury brothers and Billy Clanton would
perish in the fight. </span></span> </span></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1920 - Sale and manufacture of alcoholic liquors outlawed. The Prohibition
era sees a mushrooming of illegal drinking joints, home-produced alcohol
and gangsterism. </span></span></span></span></pre>
1927- Congress passes a law banning the mailing of concealable weapons.<br />
1934- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/26/ch53.html">National Firearms
Act of 1934</a><b> regulating only fully automatic firearms like sub-machine guns</b> is approved
by Congress.(<i>http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm)</i><br />
1939- The Federal Firearms Act of 1938 places the <b>first limitations on selling ordinary
firearms. </b>Persons selling guns are required to obtain a Federal Firearms License, at an
annual cost of $1, and to maintain records of the name and address of persons to whom
firearms are sold. Gun sales to persons convicted of violent felonies were prohibited.<i> </i> <br />
<i> </i><br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="atrZJf7lbCAgOM:" 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" style="height: 170px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 176px;" /><br />
1924- May 10- J. Edgar Hoover is appointed to lead the Federal Bureau
of Investigation.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> 1929-February 14- In Chicago, Illinois, gangsters working for Al
Capone kill seven rivals in the act known as the St. Valentine's Day
Massacre.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1932- March 1, 1932 - The infant son of Charles Lindbergh and Anne Morrow
Lindbergh, Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Jr., is kidnapped. Heis found dead on May 12 not far from his home</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> in Hopewell, New Jersey. Three years later, on February 13, 1935, Bruno Hauptmann
was found guilty of the crime. </span> </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1963 - Nov. 22- shortly after, evidence in the the assassination of President John F. Kennedy increased public awareness to the relative lack
of <b>control over the sale and possession of firearms</b> in America. Indeed, until 1968,
handguns, rifles, shotguns, and ammunition were commonly sold over-the-counter and through
mail-order catalogs and magazines to just about any adult anywhere in the nation. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1968- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/ch44.html">Gun Control Act of 1968</a> - "...was enacted for the purpose of <b>keeping firearms out of the hands of
those not legally entitled to possess them because of age, criminal background, or
incompetence."</b> -- <i>Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms </i>The Act regulates
imported guns, expands the gun-dealer licensing and record keeping requirements, and
places specific limitations on the sale of handguns. The list of persons banned from
buying guns is expanded to include persons convicted of any non-business related felony,
persons found to be mentally incompetent, and users of illegal drugs. </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">(<i>http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm)</i> </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1972- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.atf.treas.gov/core/firearms/firearms.htm" target="Netscape93">Bureau ofAlcohol Tobacco and Firearms</a> is created listing as part of its mission the control of
illegal use and sale of firearms and the <b>enforcement of Federal firearms laws.</b> ATF issues
firearms licenses and conducts firearms licensee qualification and compliance inspections.
1975 - Heiress Patty Hearst is kidnapped in San Francisco. She would be recovered by FBI agents on
September 8 and subsequently indicted for bank robbery. Hurst would be
convicted of the crime two years later. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1977- </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">The District of Columbia enacts an anti-handgun law which also requires
<b>registration of all rifles and shotguns</b> within the District of Columbia. </span></pre>
1986- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/career.htm">Armed Career Criminal Act</a>
(Public Law 99-570) increases <b>penalties for possession of firearms by persons not
qualified to own them</b> under the Gun Control Act of 1986.<br />
The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/mcclure.htm">Firearms Owners
Protection Act</a> (Public Law 99-308) relaxes some restrictions on gun and ammunition
sales and establishes mandatory penalties for <b>use of firearms during the commission of a
crime.</b>
<br />
The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/bullet.htm">Law Enforcement Officers
Protection Act</a> (Public Law 99-408) bans possession of <b>"cop killer" bullets</b>
capable of penetrating bulletproof clothing.http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm<br />
1989- California b<b>ans the possession of semiautomatic assault weapons</b> following the
massacre of five children on a Stockton, CA school playground. <br />
1990- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/cca1990.htm">Crime Control Act of
1990</a> (Public Law 101-647) bans<b> manufacturing and importing semiautomatic assault
weapons</b> in the U.S. "Gun-free school zones" are established carrying specific
penalties for violations.<br />
1993-
February 28- The fifty-one day Waco standoff begins when the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms attempt to arrest the Branch
Dividian leader David Koresh on federal arms violations. Four
agents and five members of the cult are killed in the raid.
The
siege would end on April 19 when a fire, started by the Davidians,
killed seventy-five members of the group, including the leader.<br />
1994- June 12- The bodies of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman
are found outside her home in Los Angeles, California. Five
days
later, her husband, former football star O.J. Simpson is arrested for
the crime, but is later acquitted on October 3,
1995. The
Simpson case was one of the highest profile murder cases in the
nation's history.<br />
<br />
1994- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/brady.htm">Brady Handgun Violence Prevention
Act</a> (Public Law 103-159) imposes a<b> five-day waiting period </b>on the purchase of a
handgun and requires that local law enforcement agencies conduct background checks on
purchasers of handguns. (<a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.atf.treas.gov/core/firearms/information/brady/brady.htm">ATF's Brady Law
web site</a>.)
<br />
The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/assault.htm">Violent Crime Control and Law
Enforcement Act of 1994</a> (Public Law 103-322) <b>bans all sale, manufacture, importation,
or possession of a number of specific types of assault weapons.</b><br />
1994- September 13- President Bill Clinton signs the Assault Weapons
Ban, which bars the use of these weapons for ten years.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm<br />
<br />
1995 - Oklahoma bomb kills more than 160 people in worst ever
incident of its kind in US. April 19- Anarchists Timothy McVeigh and
Terry Nichols explode a
bomb outside the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City.<br />
<b>2001 </b>October - USA Patriot Act approved by the Senate, giving
the government greater powers to detain suspected terrorists, eavesdrop
on communications and counter money-laundering. In November, President
Bush signs a directive to try suspected terrorists in military tribunals
rather than the courts<br />
<span class="date">14 Dec 2012: </span>
The shooting at Sandy Hook elementary school in Newtown, Connecticut, is one of many in the US over the past 50 years,<br />
2012-2013-
the Sandy Hook school shooting sparks nation wide gun control debates
for and against proposals to ban military grade weapons. <br />
<br />
<b><b>NATIVE AMERICANS</b></b><br />
<b><b> </b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">20,000 BC- beginning of <span style="font-size: small;">migrations ac<span style="font-size: small;">ross the Bering Straits of peoples who would bec<span style="font-size: small;">ome the native Indian peoples of America.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">200 BC –
400 AD Hopewell culture – Ohio and Mississippi </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">650<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal;">
-
</span>Bow and arrow
and other crude tools, corn in Northwest </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1150 - founding of Hopi
village</span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><img alt="" class="rg_hi uh_hi" data-height="180" data-width="240" height="180" id="rg_hi" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTE3VEdavmYeoL5UTHuuy8QTvk_r5ydqhpKsX4Uc73N-1cg5AnhVg" style="height: 180px; width: 240px;" width="240" /> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ancient Hopi Village.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1200 - high point of
Mississippian cultures - Cahokia</span></span> </span></span></span></span><br />
1450- <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
-
Founding of the
Iroquois Confederacy in Northeast U.S.</span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1675 - 1676 - King Philip's War
erupts in New England between colonists and Native Americans as a result
of tensions over colonist's expansionist activities. The bloody war
rages up and down the Connecticut River valley in Massachusetts and in
the Plymouth and Rhode Island colonies, eventually resulting in 600
English colonials being killed and 3,000 Native Americans, including
women and children on both sides. King Philip (the colonist's nickname
for Metacomet, chief of the Wampanoags) is hunted down and killed on
August 12, 1676, in a swamp in Rhode Island, ending the war in southern
New England and ending the independent power of Native Americans there.
In New Hampshire and Maine, the Saco Indians continue to raid
settlements for another year and a half.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1690
- The beginning of King William's War as hostilities in Europe
between the French and English spill over to the colonies. In
February, Schenectady, New York is burned by the French with the aid of
their Native American allies.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1702
- In March, Queen Anne ascends the English throne. In May, England
declares war on France after the death of the King of Spain, Charles II,
to stop the union of France and Spain. This War of the Spanish
Succession is called Queen Anne's War in the colonies, where the English
and American colonists will battle the French, their Native American
allies, and the Spanish for the next eleven years.</span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1711
- Hostilities break out between Native Americans and settlers in North
Carolina after the massacre of settlers there. The conflict, known as
the Tuscarora Indian War will last two years</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1754
- The French and Indian War erupts as a result of disputes over land in the
Ohio River Valley. In May, George Washington leads a small group of American
colonists to victory over the French, then builds Fort Necessity in the Ohio
territory. In July, after being attacked by numerically superior French
forces, Washington surrenders the fort and retreats.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1755
- In February, English General Edward Braddock arrives in Virginia with two
regiments of English </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">troops. Gen. Braddock assumes the post of commander in
chief of all English forces in America. In April, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Gen. Braddock and Lt. Col.
George Washington set out with nearly 2000 men to battle the French in the </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Ohio territory. In July, a force of about 900 French and Indians defeat
those English forces. Braddock is </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">mortally wounded. Massachusetts Governor
William Shirley then becomes the new commander in chief.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1756
- England declares war on France, as the French and Indian War in the
colonies now spreads to </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Europe.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1757
- In June, William Pitt becomes England's Secretary of State and escalates
the French and Indian War </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in the colonies by establishing a policy of
unlimited warfare. In July, Benjamin Franklin begins a five year stay </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in
London.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1758
- In July, a devastating defeat occurs for English forces at Lake George,
New York, as nearly two </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">thousand men are lost during a frontal attack
against well entrenched French forces at Fort Ticonderoga. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">French losses are
377. In November, the French abandon Fort Duquesne in the Ohio territory.
Settlers then </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">rush into the territory to establish homes. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1758<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> the
first Indian reservation in America is founded, in </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">New Jersey, on 3000
acres.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1759
- French Fort Niagara is captured by the English. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>759<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> war erupts
between Cherokee Indians and southern colonists.</span> </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The French and Indian War, known in Europe as the Seven Year's War, ends
with the Treaty of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Paris. Under the treaty, France gives England all French
territory east of the Mississippi River, except New </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Orleans. The Spanish
give up east and west Florida to the English in return for Cuba.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>763
- In May, the Ottawa Native Americans under Chief Pontiac begin all-out
warfare against the British </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">west of Niagara, destroying several British
forts and conducting a siege against the British at Detroit. In </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">August,
Pontiac's forces are defeated by the British near Pittsburgh. The siege of
Detroit ends in November, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">but hostilities between the British and Chief
Pontiac continue for several years.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits
any English settlement west of the Appalachian mountains and requires those
already settled in those regions to return east in an attempt to ease
tensions with Native Americans.</span></span></span><br />
-presidency of <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Andrew Jackson, 1829-1837</span></span></span><br />
<br />
1830- May 26- The United States Congress approved the Indian Removal
Act, which facilitated the relocation of Indian tribes from east of the
Mississippi River. Although this act did not order their
removal,
it paved the way for increased pressure on Indian tribes to accept
land-exchange treaties with the U.S. government and helped lead the way
to the "Trail of Tears."<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1873-</span>August 4 - The Seventh Cavalry under the command of Lt. Colonel
George Armstrong Custer, protecting a railroad survey party in Montana,
engage the Sioux for the first time near the Tongue River in one minor
clash of the Indian War. The Indian Wars, which had raged
throughout 1873, saw the First Battle of the Stronghold on January 17,
and the Second Battle of the Stronghold on April 15-17, and the end of
the Modoc War on June 4 when Captain Jack was captured.<br />
<br />
1875- November 9- Reporting on the Indian Wars, inspector E.C. Watkins
pronounces that hundreds of Sioux and Cheyenne under Indian leaders
Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse are openly hostile against the United
States government, forming U.S. policy over the next year that would
lead to battles such as Little Big Horn. <br />
1876- January 31, 1876 - The United States government
issues
a decree ordering all Native Americans onto a system of reservations
throughout the western lands of the United States.<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1876</b> - Sioux Indians defeat US troops at Little Big Horn.</span><br />
<br />
<img height="393" id="irc_mi" src="http://www.ya-native.com/images/ChiefCrazyHorse.jpg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="281" /><br />
1877 May 6- Indian leader of the Oglala Sioux, Crazy Horse,
surrenders to the United States Army in Nebraska. His
people had been weakened by cold and hunger.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">July 20, 1881 - Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of final group<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>of his tribe, still fugitive from the reservation, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">and surrenders toUnited States troops at Fort Buford, Montana.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>1890</b> - US troops defeat Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee. </span></span></pre>
1893 September 16 - The 4th of five land runs in Oklahoma's dash,
known as the Oklahoma Land Race or
the Cherokee Strip Land Run, opened seven million acres of the
Cherokee Strip. It was purchased from the Indian tribe for
$7,000,000. Nearly 100,000 people gathered around the 42,000
claims that were available to the first person, with a certificate, to
stake a claim<br />
1924 - Congress gives indigenous people right to citizenship. <br />
<br />
<b>ASSASSINATIONS</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1865-April 14 – Lincoln <span style="font-size: small;">assassinated during a play at<span style="font-size: small;"> the Ford Theatre,</span></span> dies next
day. </span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></b><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1881- July 2, 1881 - The 20th President of the United States, James A.Garfield, is shot </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">by lawyer Charles J. Guiteau in the Baltimore and<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Potomac Railroad station in Washington, D.C. </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">He would die two<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>months later on September 19, 1881 from an infection and be succeeded
in the presidency by Vice President Chester Arthur on September 20.</span></span></pre>
1901- September 6- President William H. McKinley is shot at the
Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York while shaking hands with
fair visitors, following his speech at the event on President's Day the
day before. Anarchist Leon Czolgosz, an avowed anarchist, is
arrested for the crime. <br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1963</b> Nov. - President John F Kennedy assassinated; Lyndon Johnson becomes president</span></span></pre>
1968- June 5- Presidential candidate, the Democratic Senator from New
York, Robert F. Kennedy, is shot at a campaign victory celebration in
Los Angeles by Sirhan Sirhan, a Jordanian, after primary victories, and
dies one day later.<br />
1981- March 30- President Ronald Reagan withstands an assassination
attempt, shot in the chest while walking to his limousine in
Washington, D.C.<br />
<br />
<b>LATIN AMERICAN RELATIONS.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1598 - <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>eOnate leads Spanish into New Mexico</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1609 - Spanish found Santa Fe.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1739
- England declares war on Spain. As a result, in America, hostilities break
out between Florida Spaniards and Georgia and South Carolina colonists.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1740<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> in Europe, the War of the
Austrian Succession begins after the death of Emperor Charles VI and
eventually results in France and Spain allied against England. The conflict
is known in the American colonies as King George's War and lasts until
1748.</span></span></span><br />
1817-1825- -presidency of James Monroe.<br />
1823- Dec. 2- Monroe Doctrine - In a speech before Congress, James Monroe announces
the Monroe Doctrine, stating the policy that European
intervention anyplace is the Americas is opposed and that he would
establish American neutrality in future European wars.<br />
1846-48
- US acquires vast tracts of Mexican territory in wake of Mexican War
including California and New Mexico.<br />
1846-May 8- The first
conflict of the Mexican War occurs north of the
Rio Grande River at Palo Alto, Texas when United States troops under
the command of Major General Zachary Taylor rout a larger Mexican
force. Zachary had been ordered by President Polk to sieze
disputed Texas land settled by Mexicans.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>898- </span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">April 22, 1898 - The blockade of Cuba begins when the United States<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Navy aids independence forces</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> within Cuba. Several days<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>later,<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>the U.S.A. declares war on Spain, backdating its declaration to April
20.
May 12, 1898 - San Juan, Puerto Rico is bombed by the American navy<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>under the command of Rear Admiral</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">William T. Sampson. Puerto<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Rico<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>is overtaken by the United States between July 25 with its landing at<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Guanica Bay and August 12. These acts during the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Spanish-American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>War would ultimately result in Spain </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">deciding in December to cede<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>lands, including Puerto Rico, to the United States. </span></span></pre>
<b>1898</b> - US gains Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines and Cuba following the Spanish-American war. US annexes Hawaii.<br />
1901- March 2 - The Platt amendment is passed by the United States
Congress, which limited the autonomy of Cuba as a condition for
American troop withdrawal. Cuba would become a U.S.
protectorate on June 12. <br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1903- November 3- With United States support after the Hay-Herran<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Treaty rejection by Columbia </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">earlier in the year, Panama declares its<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>independence from Columbia. The Panama government is
recognized by President Theodore Roosevelt three days later and sign a<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>canal treaty on November 18, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">allowing the U.S. led construction of the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>canal.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> </span><img height="323" id="irc_mi" src="http://www.usmilitariaforum.com/uploads//monthly_09_2012/post-9487-1347634294.jpg" style="margin-top: 35px;" width="574" /></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1912- August 14 - The United States Marines are ordered to Nicaragua
due to its default on loans to the United States and its European
allies.</span></pre>
<b>1916</b>- March 8-9 -
Pancho
Villa raids Columbus, New Mexico and other border towns along the
Mexican and United States lines with 1,500 troops, that would lead, on
March 16, to General John J. Pershing entering Mexico in pursuit of
Villa with the 7th and 10th U.S. cavalry. Wilson had
authorized
12,000 troops to cross the border one day earlier. <br />
<br />
1978- April 18- The United States Senate votes to return the Panama
Canal back to Panama on December 31, 1999. A treaty for the
return had been signed on September 7 of the previous year, pending
approval by the U.S. Congress.<br />
1983-1990- The White House circumvents Congress to prosecute a secretly
funded war against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua.<br />
1983 - US invades Caribbean nation of Grenada, partly prompted by its concerns over the island's ties with Cuba. <br />
1986- "Irangate" scandal uncovered, revealing that
proceeds from secret US arms sales to Iran were used illegally to fund
Contra rebels in Nicaragua.<br />
1987- August 12- Near the end of hearings into the
Iran-contra affair, President Reagan admitted to a policy that went
astray, but denied knowledge of the diversion of funds to the contras.<br />
1988-February 3 - The United States House of
Representatives rejects the request of President Reagan for $36.25
million to fund the Nicaraguan Contras<br />
<b>1989</b>
- US troops invade Panama, oust its government and arrest its leader,
one-time Central Intelligence Agency informant General Manuel Noriega,
on drug-trafficking charges. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>LEARNING, INNOVATION, INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY.</b><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1636 - H<span style="font-size: small;">arvard fou<span style="font-size: small;">nded</span></span> - In June, Roger Williams founds Providence and Rhode
Island. Williams</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">had been banished from Massachusetts for "new and
dangerous opinions" calling for religious and </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">political freedoms,
including separation of church and state, not granted under the Puritan
rules.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Providence then becomes a haven for many other colonists fleeing
religious intolerance.</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1693
- The College of William and Mary is founded in Williamsburg,
Virginia.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1701- October<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span>
Yale College is founded in Connecticut.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1731
- The first American public library is founded in Philadelphia by Benjamin
Franklin.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1800 (circ<span style="font-size: small;">a) </span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-The American System of Manufacturing is invented by Eli Whitney, who
uses semi-skilled labor, machine tools, and jigs to make standardized,
interchangeable parts, then an aseembly line of labor.
Whitney
first used the system to manufacture 10,000 muskets for the U.S.
Government.</span> </span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1885-March 3- American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) is<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>incorporated in New York City as a </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">subsidiary of American Bell<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Telephone Company.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1889-1893 The Republicans passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, admitted several new states to the
Union, and passed the highly protective McKinley Tariff Act.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<b> </b><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1895- </span>November 5- The first United States patent for the automobile,
#549160, is granted to George B. Selden for his two stroke automobile
engine.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1903- December 17- Inventors Wilbur and Orville Wright succeed in the
first sustained and manned plane flight, taking the heavier-than-air<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>machine through the winds of </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Kill Devil Hill, North Carolina, and man<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>into an age of flight. The plane, mechanically propelled with
a petroleum engine, flew 120 feet in 12 seconds, and later the same<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>day, flew 852 feet in 59 seconds . </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">They would patent the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Airplane three years later on May 22, 1906. Photo top right:
Orville Wright on the 3rd<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>flight on December 17, 1903 at Kitty Hawk, NC</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQMHJEs3FY1eWW8g7JNLMRuouMDeBxw3sZf8Ku4dcRnfocWnvUy2A" data-sz="f" name="GH_opQiHaCeReM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQMHJEs3FY1eWW8g7JNLMRuouMDeBxw3sZf8Ku4dcRnfocWnvUy2A" style="height: 177px; margin-left: -3px; margin-top: 0px; width: 189px;" /></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></pre>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1908- September 27- The first production Model T was built at the Ford
plant in Detroit, Michigan.</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1923 - The first sound on film motion picture "Phonofilm" is show
in the Rivoli Theatre in New York City by Lee de Forest. </span></span></pre>
<br />
1926- Air Commerce Act is passed, providing aid and assistance to the airline
industry, plus federal oversight under the Department of Commerce for
civil air safety.<br />
1927- May 20- Charles Lindbergh leaves Roosevelt Field, New York on
the first non-stop transatlantic flight in history. He would
reach Paris thirty-three and one-half hours later in the Spirit of St.
Louis, his aircraft. A ticker tape parade would be held in
New
York City after his return on June 13.<br />
1927- October 6- The advent of talking pictures emerges. Al
Jolson in the Jazz Singer debuts in New York City.<br />
<br />
1939- August 2, 1939 - Albert Einstein alerts Franklin D. Roosevelt to an
A-bomb opportunity, which led to the creation of the Manhattan
Project. Einstein had arrived as a fugitive from Nazi Germany
six
years earlier on October 17, 1933.<br />
1942-
December 2- The first nuclear chain reaction is produced at the
University of Chicago in the Manhattan Project, creating fission of the
Uranium U-235, under the direction of physicists Arthur Compton and
Enrico Fermi.<br />
1951- September 4- The inauguration of trans-continental television
occurs with the broadcast of President Truman's speech at the Japanese
Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco. <br />
1958- January 31- Explorer I, the first U.S. space
satellite, is launched by the Army at Cape Canaveral. It
would
discover the Van Allen radiation belt.<br />
1961- May 5- The first U.S. manned sub-orbital space flight is
completed with Commander Alan B. Shepard Jr. inside a Mercury capsule
launched 116.5 miles above the earth from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Twenty days later, President Kennedy
announces his
intention to place a man on the moon by the end of the decade.<br />
1962- February 20- Lt. Colonel John Glenn becomes the first U.S.
astronaut in orbit in the Friendship 7 Mercury capsule. <br />
-US astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon.<br />
1976- July 20- The Viking 1 space probe successfully lands on
Mars. It would be followed by a second unmanned Viking II on
the
Utopia Plains on September 3. The first color photos of the
surface of Mars are taken on these flights. <br />
1983- March 23 - The initial proposal to develop
technology to intercept incoming missiles, the Strategic Defense
Initiative Program, or Star Wars, is made by President Ronald Reagan.<br />
<b>1986</b>
January - Space shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after take off from
Cape Canaveral. All seven crew members are killed. Manned space flights
are suspended until September 1988. <br />
1997- March 4- Federal funding for any research into human cloning is
barred by President Bill Clinton.<br />
1998- May 18- The United States Department of Justice and twenty
states file the anti-trust case, U.S. versus Microsoft. On
November 5, 1999, a preliminary ruling stated that Microsoft had
monopoly power.<br />
2000- April 3
-
The ruling in the case of the United States versus Microsoft states
that the company did violate anti-trust laws by diminishing the
capability of its rivals to compete.<br />
<br />
<b>2001 </b>July - US tests its controversial missile defence shield, or "Son of Star Wars". <br />
<b>2003</b> February
- Space shuttle Columbia's 28th mission ends in tragedy when the craft
breaks-up while re-entering the atmosphere. The seven astronauts on
board are killed.<br />
2005- July 26, 2005 - In the first Space Shuttle flight since the tragedy of
2003, Discovery goes into orbit on a mission that returns to earth
safely on August 9.<br />
<b>2011 </b>July
- The final Space Shuttle mission is completed with the landing of
Atlantis on 21 July, bringing about the end of the 30-year programme<br />
<br />
<b>RACE RELATIONS.</b><br />
<br />
1875- March 1 - The Civil Rights Act, giving equal
rights to blacks in jury duty and accommodation is passed by the United
States Congress. <br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1870s-1920s- epidemic of white mob lynchings of blacks, mostly in the American South.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1883- </span><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">Civil Rights Act</span> overturned in 1883 by the U.S.
Supreme Court<span style="font-size: small;"> with ad<span style="font-size: small;">verse effe<span style="font-size: small;">cts for black Americans.</span></span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1909- May 30- The National Conference of the Negro is conducted,
leading to the formation of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People, (NAACP). </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">-Jim <span style="font-size: small;">C</span>rowe laws rein<span style="font-size: small;">force segregation throughout the South.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1937- March 26- William Henry Hastie is appointed to the federal
bench, becoming the first African-American to become a federal judge. </span></pre>
1943- June 21- Race riots in Detroit and Harlem cause forty deaths and
seven hundred injuries. <br />
<br />
1948- July 26- Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the United
States military in signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman.<br />
1967 July - Black riots plague U.S. cities. In Newark, New
Jersey, twenty-six are killed, fifteen hundred injured and one thousand
arrested from July 12 to 17. One week later, July 23 to 30,
forty
are killed, two thousand injured, and five thousand left homeless after
rioting in Detroit, known as the 12th Street Riots, decimate a black
ghetto. The riots are eventually stopped by over 12,500
Federal
troopers and National Guardsmen. <br />
<b>1968</b> - Black civil rights leader Martin Luther King assassinated.<br />
1986- January 20- Martin Luther King Day is officially observed for the first time
as a federal holiday in the United States. <br />
<br />
<b>PROTEST, CIVIL RIGHTS, LABOUR, WOMEN AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION</b><br />
<br />
<b>1791</b> - Bill of Rights guarantees individual freedom.<br />
1865- December 18- The 13th Amendment abolishing slavery is added to the Constitution.<br />
1866-
Jun 16 - The 14th Amendment declaring all persons born on American
soil, to be citizens (including blacks) is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1849- Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the
United States' first women to receive a medical degree.</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1870 - 15<sup>th</sup> Amendment Ratified, giving Blacks but not women the right to vote.</span> </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1872- </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">May 22- Civil rights are restored to citizens of the South,
except for five hundred Confederate leaders, with the passage of the
Amnesty Act of 1872 and its signing by President Ulysses S. Grant.. </span> </span></span></pre>
1875- March 1 - The Civil Rights Act, giving equal
rights to blacks in jury duty and accommodation is passed by the United
States Congress. It would be overturned in 1883 by the U.S.
Supreme Court.<br />
-As the 19th Century came to a close, the American electorate changed
more and more rapidly. The Democratic Party embraced the immigrants who
flooded into cities and industrial centers, built a political base by
bringing them into the American mainstream, and helped create the most
powerful economic engine in history. Democratic Party leader William
Jennings Bryan led a movement of agrarian reformers and supported the
right of women's suffrage, the progressive graduated income tax and the
direct election of Senators.<br />
1892-1895- a period of deep labour unrest. Strikes and strike breakers. <br />
1894- April 29- In a march of five hundred unemployed workers into
Washington, D.C. that had begun on March 25 in Massillon, Ohio, leader
James S. Coxey is arrested for treason.<br />
<br />
1896- May 18- Plessy
versus Ferguson decision by the Supreme Court states that racial
segregation is approved under the "separate but equal" doctrine.<br />
<br />
1901- September 6- President William H. McKinley is shot at the
Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York while shaking hands with
fair visitors, following his speech at the event on President's Day the
day before. Anarchist Leon Czolgosz, an avowed anarchist, is
arrested for the crime. <br />
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1909- May 30- The National Conference of the Negro is conducted,<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>leading to the formation of the </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">National Association for the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Advancement of Colored People, (NAACP). </span></span></pre>
<b>1920</b> - Women given the right to vote under the Nineteenth Amendment.<br />
<br />
1929-33
- 13 million people become unemployed after the Wall Street stock
market crash of 1929 triggers what becomes known as the Great
Depression. President Herbert Hoover rejects direct federal relief.<br />
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1930- December 2- In order to combat the growing depression, President
Herbert Hoover asks the U.S. Congress to pass a $150 million public
works project to increase employment and economic activity </span></span></pre>
1933-March 9 - June 16, The New Deal social and economic programs are
passed by the United States Congress is a special one hundred day
session to address depression era economics.<br />
1937- March 26- William Henry Hastie is appointed to the federal
bench, becoming the first African-American to become a federal judge.<br />
1938- June 28- The National Minimum Wage is enacted within the federal
legislation known as the Fair Labor Standards Act. It
established
a minimum wage of $0.25 at the time (approx. $3.22 in 2005), as well as
time and one half for overtime and the prohibition of most employment
for minors.<br />
1946-April 1- Four hundred thousand mine workers begin to strike,
with other industries following their lead.<br />
1948- July 26- Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the United
States military in signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman.<br />
<b>1954</b>
- Racial segregation in schools becomes unconstitutional; start of
campaign of civil disobedience to secure civil rights for Americans of
African descent.<br />
1955- December 1- Rosa Parks, an African American seamstress, refuses
to give up her seat on the bus to a white man, prompting the boycott
and NAACP protect that would lead to the declaration that bus
segregation laws were unconstitutional by a federal court.<br />
December 5- The two largest American labor unions, the American
Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations, merge
to form the AFL-CIO, boasting membership of fifteen million. <br />
1956- March 12-
One hundred and one congressmen from Southern states call for massive
resistance to the Supreme Court ruling on desegregation.<br />
1957- April 29- U.S. Congress approves the first civil rights bill
since reconstruction with additional protection of voting rights.<br />
<br />
1963- August 28- The Civil Rights march on Washington DC for Jobs
and Freedom culminates with Dr. Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a
Dream" speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Over
200,000 people participated in the march for equal rights. A
monument is now planned on the National Mall to commemorate Dr. King,
the speech, and his impact on Civil Rights.<br />
1964- June 29- An omnibus legislation in the U.S. Congress on Civil
Rights is passed. It banned discrimination in jobs, voting
and
accommodations. <br />
1965- August 6 - The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is signed into law by
President Lyndon B. Johnson. Two significant portions of the
act;
the outlawing of the requirement of potential voters to take a literacy
test in order to qualify and the provision of federal registration of
voters in areas with less than 50% of all voters registered.<br />
July 1- Medicare, the government medical program for citizens
over the age of 65, begins.<br />
<br />
<b>1969</b>
- Republican Party candidate Richard Nixon elected president amid
growing public opposition to Vietnam war. US military presence in
Vietnam exceeds 500,000 personnel. <br />
1969- July 25- President Richard M. Nixon announces his new Vietnam
policy, declaring the Nixon Doctrine that expected Asian allies to care
for their own military defense. This policy, and all Vietnam
war
policies, would be heavily protested throughout the remainder of the
year. On November 15, 1969, more than two hundred and fifty
thousand anti-Vietnam war demonstrators marched on Washington, D.C. to
peacefully protest the war.<br />
1970- May 4- Four students from Kent State University in Ohio were
killed and nine wounded by National Guardsmen during a protest against
the Vietnam War spread into Cambodia.<br />
1971- June 30- The United States Supreme Court upholds the right of
the New York Times and the Washington Post to publish classified
Pentagon papers about the Vietnam War, under the articles of the First
Amendment to the Constitution. The New York Times had begun
the
publication of the Pentagon papers on June 13.<br />
1973- January 22, 1973 - The United States Supreme Court
ruled
in Roe vs. Wade that a woman can not be prevented by a state in having
an abortion during the first six months of pregnancy. <br />
1984- July 12- Democratic candidate for President, Walter Mondale,
selects Geraldine Ferraro as his Vice Presidential running mate, the
first woman chosen for that position.<br />
1986- January 20- Martin Luther King Day is officially observed for the first time
as a federal holiday in the United States. <br />
1999- November 30- The first major mobilization of the
anti-globalization movement occurs in Seattle, Washington, during the
days before the 1999 World Trade Organization meetings. The
protests and rioting caused the cancellation of the WTO opening
ceremonies.<br />
<b>2001 </b>October - USA Patriot Act approved by the Senate, giving
the government greater powers to detain suspected terrorists, eavesdrop
on communications and counter money-laundering. In November, President
Bush signs a directive to try suspected terrorists in military tribunals
rather than the courts <br />
<b>2002</b>
November - President Bush signs into law a bill creating a Department of
Homeland Security, the biggest reorganisation of federal government in
more than 50 years. The large and powerful department is tasked with
protecting the US against terrorist attacks.<br />
<b>2006</b> March - Congress renews the USA Patriot Act, a
centrepiece of the government's fight against terrorism, after months of
debate about its impact on civil liberties. The government agrees to
some curbs on information gathering.<br />
<b>2010 </b>March
- Democrats in Congress succeed in passing a bill on health care
reform, despite strong Republican opposition, procedural setbacks and
public skepticism. <br />
<b>2011 </b>September
- Anti-capitalist protesters take to the streets of major cities,
marching under the slogan "Occupy Wall Street", against "corporate
greed" and increasing government debt. The protests inspire marches in
other cities worldwide<br />
<br />
<b>WORLD WAR ONE.</b><br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1914- August 4- President Woodrow Wilson announces that the United
States will stay officially neutral in the European conflict that would
become World War I. World War I hostilities had begun on June
28 when the Archduke of Austria and his wife, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie
were killed by Serb nationalist in Sarajevo. Hostilities
would begin on July 28 when Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia for failing
to meet conditions set after the assassinations.</span></pre>
<br />
<b>1917</b>- February 3- The United States government cuts
diplomatic ties with Germany. The Zimmerman Telegram is given
to
the United States by Britain on February 24, showing the offer by
Germany to give Mexico back the southwest United States if they would
declare war on the United States. <br />
<b>1917-18</b> - US intervenes in World War I, rejects membership of League of Nations.<br />
<b>1918</b>- November 11, 1918 - Hostilities in World War I begin to end with the
Austria-Hungary alliance for armistace with the allies on November
3. Armistance Day with Germany occurs when the Allies and the
German nation sign an agreement in Compiegne, France. Woodrow
Wilson would become the first U.S. President to travel to Europe while
in office when he sails to attend the Paris Peace Conference on
December 4.<br />
<br />
<b>THE UNITED NATIONS.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>1920</b>- January 10,
1920 -
The League of Nations holds its first meeting and accomplishes the
rafitification of the Treaty of Versailles, ending the hostilities of
the first World War. Nine days later the United States Senate
votes against joining the League. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>THE MIDDLE EAST. </b><br />
<br />
1978- September 17- The Camp David Peace Agreement between Israel and
Egypt is formulated in twelve days of secret negotiations at the Camp
David retreat of the President. President Jimmy Carter
witnessed
the signing of the agreement between Israeli Prime Minister Menachem
Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat at the White House. <br />
<b>1979</b>
- US embassy in Tehran, Iran, seized by radical students. The 444-day
hostage crisis - including a failed rescue attempt in 1980 - impacts on
Carter's popularity and dominates the 1980 presidential election
campaign.<br />
1980- April 24-25- The attempt to rescue the American hostages held
captive in the U.S. Embassy in Iran fails with eight Americans killed
and five wounded in Operation Eagle Claw when a mid-air collision
occurs.<br />
<br />
<b>1981</b> January - Iran frees the 52 US
embassy hostages, on the same day as President Reagan's
inauguration1983- October 23- A terrorist truck bomb kills two hundred
and
forty-one United States peacekeeping troops in Lebanon at Beirut
International Airport. A second bomb destroyed a French
barracks two miles away, killing forty there. <br />
<b>1986</b> - US warplanes
bomb Libyan cities in retaliation for a terror attack on US military personnel in a Berlin nightclub.<br />
1990- August 2, 1990 - Iraq invades its neighbor, Kuwait, setting into motion
the beginning of U.S. involvement in the Gulf War. Four days
later, the United Nations begins a global trade embargo against
Iraq. On November 29, the United Nations passes a resolution,
#678, stating that Iraq must withdraw its forces from Kuwait by January
15, 1991 or face military intervention.<br />
<b>1991</b> - US forces play
dominant role in war against Iraq, which was triggered by Iraq's
invasion of Kuwait and ended with the expulsion of Iraqi troops from
that country.<br />
1991- February 27- The Gulf War ends one day after Iraq withdraws its
forces from Kuwait and sets the oil fields on fire. A
ceasefire
is declared and Iraq accepts the condition of disarmament after one
hundred hours of ground fighting. On April 3, the United
Nations
Security Council passes Resolution 687, calling for the destruction and
removal of the entire Iraqi chemical and biologircal weapons stockpile,
plus ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150
kilometers.
Iraq also agrees to withdraw its support of international terrorism1996- June 25- The Khobar
Towers bombing in Khobar, Saudi Arabia kills nineteen U.S. military
personel, destroying the majority of a six building apartment complex
that was home to the 440th Fighter Wing. It was carried out
by
Islamic terrorists seeking removal of the U.S. presence in Saudi Arabia.<br />
1998- August 7- Attacks on two United States embassies in Africa, in
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya kills two hundred and
twenty-four and injures four thousand five hundred. The
attacks
are linked to Osama Bin Laden and his Al-Qaeda organization.
On
August 13, the United States launches cruise missile strikes against
Al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan and a suspected chemical plant in the
Sudan. <br />
1998- September 29- The United States Congress passes legislation, the
"Iraq Liberation Act" that states the U.S. wants to remove Saddam
Hussein from power and replace it with a democracy.<br />
<b>2001</b>
11 September - Co-ordinated suicide attacks on various high-profile
targets, prompting the US to embark on a ''war on terror'' which
includes the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. <br />
<b>2001 </b>October
- US leads massive campaign of air strikes against Afghanistan and
helps opposition forces defeat the Taleban regime and find Saudi-born
dissident Osama Bin Laden, who is suspected of masterminding the 11
September attacks.<br />
<b>Iraq war</b><br />
<b>2003</b> March - Missile attacks on Baghdad
mark the start of a US-led campaign to topple the Iraqi leader Saddam
Hussein. US forces advance into central Baghdad in early April.<br />
<b>2003</b> 1 May - Speaking on the deck of the aircraft carrier
Abraham Lincoln, President Bush declares that the main part of the war
in Iraq is over.<br />
2003- December 13- Saddam Hussein, former leader of Iraq, is captured
in a small bunker in Tikrit by the U.S. 4th Infantry Division. <br />
<b>2004</b> May - Furore over pictures showing the abuse of Iraqi prisoners in US custody. <br />
<b>2004</b>
July - Senate report says US and allies went to war in Iraq on "flawed"
information. Independent report into 11 September 2001 attacks
highlights deep institutional failings in intelligence services and
government.<br />
<b>2006</b>
May - The only man to be charged over the September 11 attacks,
self-confessed al-Qaeda conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui, is sentenced to
life in jail. <br />
<b>2007</b> January - President Bush
announces a new Iraq strategy; thousands more US troops will be
dispatched to shore up security in Baghdad.<br />
2009- December 1- President Obama announces a surge of 30,000
additional troops to Afghanistan to stem increased efforts by the
Taliban in the country. The surge, which was suggested by
military officers, was not popular with the liberal base of the
Democratic party which had put the President in power on a pledge to
end both Middle Eastern wars. The war in Afghanistan, which
started as a response to the terror attacks on 9/11/2001, and the war
on terror in general, comes into focus again on... <br />
-December 25 when an
airliner headed for Detroit is attacked by a Muslim
extremist, 23-year-old Umar Farouk AbdulMutallab, who attempts
to
detonate a bomb, but fails.<br />
<b>2011 </b>May - US forces kill Al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden in an operation in the Pakistani city of Abbottabad. <br />
<br />
<b> SCANDALS.</b><br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1922- April 7, 1922 - The Teapot Dome scandal begins when the U.S. Secretary
of the Interior leases the Teapot Oil Reserves in Wyoming.</span></span></pre>
1972- June 17- The Watergate crisis begins when four men are arrested
for breaking into the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the
Watergate office building in Washington DC on the same day that Okinawa is returned from U.S.
control back to Japan. <br />
1973- January 30- Two defendants in the Watergate break-in trial are
convicted. The remaining five defendants had pleaded guilty
to
the crime two weeks earlier. On April 30, the Watergate
affair
widens when four members of the Nixon administration; aides H.R.
Haldeman, John D. Ehrlichman, John W. Dean, and Attorney General
Richard Kleindienst resign under suspicion of obstructing
justice. During Senate hearings on June 25, Dean would admit
that
the administration had conspired to cover up facts about the case,
leading to the refusal of the President to release tapes concerning
Watergate. <br />
1974- May 7- Impeachment hearings are begun by the House Judiciary
Committee against President Richard M. Nixon in the Watergate
affair. On July 24, the United States Supreme Court rules
that
President Nixon must turn over the sixty-four tapes of White House
conversations concerning the Watergate break-in. <br />
<b>1974</b>
- In a TV address, Nixon announces his resignation in the wake of the
Watergate scandal, over a 1972 break-in at the Democratic Party
headquarters. Gerald Ford is sworn-in as his successor.<br />
1975- January 1- The Watergate cover up trials of
Mitchell, Haldeman, and Ehrlichman are completed; all are found guilty
of the charges.<br />
1983-1990- Contragate: The White House circumvents Congress to prosecute a secretly
funded war against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. <br />
1993-
November 20- The Senate Ethics Committee censures California
Senator Alan Cranston for his participation with Charles Keating in the
Savings and Loans scandal. The scandal had begun in the 1980s
due
to a wave of mismanagement, failed speculation, and fraud within the
industry. By the end of this crisis, almost 800 savings and loans
institutions responsible for real estate, automotive, personal and
business loans in the United States had failed. It would eventually
cost the U.S. government between $125-$150
billion to bail out the failed institutions.<br />
<b>1998</b>
- Scandal over Clinton's purported sexual impropriety with White House
worker Monica Lewinsky dominates domestic political agenda and leads to
impeachment proceedings in Congress.<br />
<b>2001</b> December - Energy giant Enron declared bankrupt after massive false-accounting comes to light.<br />
<b>2002</b> June/July - Telecoms giant WorldCom's multi-billion
dollar accounting fraud is revealed, eclipsing the Enron scandal to
become the biggest business failure in US history.<br />
2003-2004: Abu Graib: the American abuse and torture of prisoners during the Iraq War. <br />
<span class="date">2012, 13 November-</span> CIA Director Petraeus falls in scandal after it is revealed that he was having an extra marital affair with his biographer.
<br />
<br />
<b>DRUGS AND ALCOHOL.</b><br />
<br />
1920
- Sale and manufacture of alcoholic liquors outlawed. The Prohibition
era sees a mushrooming of illegal drinking joints, home-produced alcohol
and gangsterism<b><b>.</b></b><br />
1933- December 5- The 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is
passed, ending prohibition <b><b> </b></b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><b>BUSINESS, THE ECONOMY, TRADE AND WEALTH</b></b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1696
- The Royal African Trade Company loses its slave trade monopoly,
spurring colonists in New England to engage in slave trading for profit.</span></span></span> <br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1712- In Massachusetts, the first sperm
whale is captured at sea by an American from Nantucket.</span></span></span><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1720-
the ‘Mississippi Bubble’ France allows Law’s Compagnie des Indes
to assume the national debt, merge with the royal bank and collect
taxes. Stories circulating about fabulous riches in Mississippi and
Arkansas lead to massive public speculation. In October, the bubble
bursts and everyone but a canny few loses their money.</span></span> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1733
- The Molasses Act, passed by the English Parliament, imposes heavy duties
on molasses, rum and sugar imported from non-British islands in the
Caribbean to protect the English planters there from French and Dutch
competition.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">
1790- New York Stock Exchange is founded. </span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1869- September 24- Prompted by an attempt to corner the gold market,
the financial Black Friday occurs in New York City.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1873-1896- world economic depression results in a massive drop in prices. </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1889-1893 The Republicans passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, admitted several new states to the
Union, and passed the highly protective McKinley Tariff Act.</span></span></span></span> </span></span></pre>
1893-May 5, 1893 - The New York Stock Exchange collapses, starting the
financial panic of 1893. It would lead to a four year period
of
depression.<br />
1901- the creation of positive wealth has begun in the international
economy and will continue, interrupted only by the Depression and
recessions. <br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1907- March 13- Another financial crises occurs in the business
community with the beginning of the Financial Panic and Depression of
1907</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> 1911- May 15- Standard Oil is declared in unreasonable monopoly by the
United States Supreme Court and ordered dissolved under the powers of
the Sherman Antitrust Act.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1913- February 3, 1913 - The 16th Amendment to the United States Constitution
is ratified, allowing the Federal government treasury to impose an
income tax. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1913- December 23- A major reform of the American financial and
banking system occurs with the authorization of the U.S. Congress for
the establisment of the Federal Reserve System.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1919- </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">-the US, starting as supplier of the allied nations before joining the
war in 1917, goes from being a debtor nation in 1914 to a major lender, a
ceditor nation, by 1919.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1921- US embarks on a policy of heavy government subsidizing of the
economy, by extending credit nationally internationally from the Federal
Reserve, giving artificial support to exporters and to selected foreign
loans and bond issues to keep the international economy healthy and of
benefit to the US. Many of these will turn out to be bad loans.
-this massive extension of credit, internationally, is adopted in the name of "price stabilization."</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">-</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1922- the Fordney-MacCumber Tarriff Act starts a US-led trend in protectionism.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1925- Europe recovers from the war; Germany receives an international loan to help it with its reparations.
1926 -deflation as commodity prices fall. But stock prices rise relentlessly.
-US holds massive internatioNal debts, accumulating since 1914.
<span style="font-size: small;">-<span style="font-size: small;">pr</span></span>omiscuous lending by brokerages as myriad investors borrow money to
buy stocks- otherwise known as "buying on margin". Sometimes the
borrowed money would account for five to ten times the amount they'd
invested of their own money. Gains could be made, strictly on paper, by
bidding against other stock holders. But losses would force those who
had bought on margin to sell their stock to pay back their lender.
-with stabilization by means of credit, prices of manufactured goods,
like cars, are not stable but keep on rising- while wages fail to keep
up, so consumer spending begins to decline.
1927- July- in response to the decline in spending, Montagu Norman,
governor of the bank of England and Benjamin Strong, governor of the New
York federal reserve Bank meet at Ogden Mills, Long island, with
Standard Oil's Ruth Pratt. Together, they secretly add more credit to
the international system. The Fed reduces its lending rate by a half
percentage to 3.5. This sets in motion the final tidal wave of
speculation. Strong's "little coup de whiskey" benefits the rich but
does little for ordinary consumers.
-foreign governments will see the Odgen Mills meeting as a political
strategy: an Anglo-American attempt to dominate the international
economy by holding other nations in debt.
-for four years, 1926-29, the Norman-Strong policy of 'price stabilization' bolsters the world economy.
1928- short-term loans in US become more expensive.
-a huge increase in buying on margin is accompanied by patched-togethert investment trusts.
-the U.S. keeps its interest rates artificially low.
-the US begins to call in European loans which borrowers have had trouble repaying.
-demand slackens in US as consumers prepare for a slow-down.
1929- in Europe and the West, manufacturing returns to 1913 levels. 1929 is a record year for European trade.
March, 1929-1933- Herbert Hoover president of the US. His 'corporatism',
the belief that America's well-being should be entrusted to an alliance
of big business, the state and the unions, is said to have led to the
state interventionism that fueled the 1929 market crash and the
depression that followed. His failure to allow interest rates to rise is
also said to have been responsible.
1929 -spring- prices on European exchanges weaken.
-June- US economy stops expanding. Shares begin earning less than they cost.
-July- US inflation is not caused by currency but by credit augmented by
the White House, Treasury, Congress, government and private banks. The
injection reaches $73 billion, up from $45 billion in 1921. Meanwhile,
interest rates are kept artificially low.
-Sept 3- US bull market comes to an end. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">The Great Depression.</span></span></pre>
1929- October 29- Postwar prosperity ends in the 1929 Stock Market
crash. The plummeting stock prices led to losses between 1929
and
1931 of an estimated $50 billion and started the worst American
depression in the nation's history. On the
New York City docks, out of work men during the Great Depression, an
outcome of the Stock Market crash of 1929 after the prosperous decade
of the 1920's.<br />
<br />
1929-33
- 13 million people become unemployed after the Wall Street stock
market crash of 1929 triggers what becomes known as the Great
Depression. President Herbert Hoover rejects direct federal relief.<b> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> 1930- June 17 - The Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act is signed by President Herbert Hoover. </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">It's effective rate hikes would slash world trade.</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1930- December 2- In order to combat the growing depression, President
Herbert Hoover asks the U.S. Congress to pass a $150 million public
works project to increase employment and economic activity </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1930- with the Smoot-Hawley act, the US imposes tarriffs on imports which will worsen the effects of the Depression.<br />
-Americans cease to invest in foreign countries or to buy their goods. The post war revival of the European economy stalls.<br />
1931- Reserve Bank of New York raises interest rates in order to stem the outflow of gold and prop up the dollar. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1932- January 22 - The Reconstruction Finance Corporation is established to stimulate banking and
business. Unemployment in 1932 reached twelve million workers.</span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1932-November 8, 1932 - Democratic challenger Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats
incumbent President Hoover in the presidential election for his first of an unprecedented four terms.</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> The landslide victory, 472 Electoral College votes to 59 for Hoover began the era of FDR that
would lead the nation through the vestiges of the Great Depression and
the ravages of World War II.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<b>1933</b> - President Franklin D Roosevelt launches "New Deal"
recovery programme which includes major public works.<br />
-March 9 - June 16, The New Deal social and economic programs are
passed by the United States Congress is a special one hundred day
session to address depression era economics. The gold
standard
was dropped on April 19 and ratified during the time of this session on
June 5.Sale of alcohol
resumes.<br />
1933- November 1- In South Dakota, a strong dust storm strips topsoil
from depression era farms. It was one in a series of such
storms
to plague the Midwest during 1933 and 1934.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1934- June 6- The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission is
established with the signing of the Securities Exchange Act into law by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt.</span></span> </span> </span></pre>
1935- August 14- The Social Security Act is passed by Congress as part
of the New Deal legislation and signed into law by President Franklin
D. Roosevelt. It would begin payouts to retirees within two
years. Workers began contributing into the system during the
same
year, at a rate of 2% of the first $3,000 in earnings, half paid by the
employee and half paid by the employer.<br />
1936- November 3, 1936 - Franklin D. Roosevelt overwhelms his Republican
challenger, Alfred Landon, for a second presidential term.
His
Electoral College margin, 523 to 8, and 62% of the popular vote insured
Roosevelt carte blanche in his goals of the New Deal.<br />
<b>1980</b> November - Republican
Party's Ronald Reagan elected president. Reagan goes on to adopt a tough
anti-communist foreign policy and tax-cutting policies which lead to a
large federal budget deficit. <br />
1981- July 29- Tax cut legislation proposed by President Ronald
Reagan, the largest in history, is passed by both houses of the U.S.
Congress. It would reduce taxes by $750 billion over the next
five years.<br />
1982- January 8- The AT&T lawsuit
was settled with the U.S. Justice Department. The agreement
forced the independence of the twenty-two regional Bell System
companies in return for expansion into the prohibited areas of data
processing and equipment sales.<br />
1982- November 5- The highest unemployment rate since 1940 was
recorded at 10.4%. By the end of November, over eleven
million people would be unemployed.<br />
1986-1988- the problem of Insider Trading raises its head in the United States. <br />
1987- October 19, 1987 - The stock market crash known as Black Monday
occurred on the New York Stock Exchange, recording a record 22.6% drop
in one day. Stock markets around the world would mirror the
crash
with drops of their own.<br />
1989- January 6- Economic reports on the previous year
from the Labor Department indicated a growth rate of 3.8%, the largest
in four years and an unemployment rate of 5.3%, a low of fourteen years<br />
<b>1992</b>
- Congress passes North American Free Trade Agreement, or Nafta,
intended to create free-trade bloc among US, Canada and Mexico<br />
1993-
November 20- The Senate Ethics Committee censures California
Senator Alan Cranston for his participation with Charles Keating in the
Savings and Loans scandal. The scandal had begun in the 1980s
due
to a wave of mismanagement, failed speculation, and fraud within the
industry.
By the end of this crisis, almost 800 savings and loans
institutions responsible for real estate, automotive, personal and
business loans in the United States had failed. It would eventually
cost the U.S. government between $125-$150
billion to bail out the failed institutions.<br />
1994- January 1- The North American Free Trade
Agreement
(NAFTA) goes into effect, creating a free trade zone between Canada,
the United States, and Mexico1995- Jan 1- The World Trade Organization (WTO) is
created, replacing the General Agreement on Tarrifs and Trade (GATT)
formed from a series of post-war treaties on trade. The World
Trade Organization is more highly structured than the previous GATT and
counted seventy-six nations among its members in 1995 <br />
1996- December 5- A speech by the Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan
Greenspan suggest that "irrational exuberance" may be causing the
extraordinary runup of stock prices<br />
<br />
1998- May 18- The United States Department of Justice and twenty
states file the anti-trust case, U.S. versus Microsoft. On
November 5, 1999, a preliminary ruling stated that Microsoft had
monopoly power.<br />
1999- March 29- The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above 10,000
for the first time.<br />
2001- the terrorist attacks of 9/11 slow down a recovering market. <br />
THE CRASH OF 2008. <br />
<b>2008</b> September - Turmoil in the
US and international financial markets as major Wall Street investment
bank Lehman Brothers collapses and other big US financial players face
growing troubles as a result of the "credit crunch". With hundreds of
billions of dollars wiped out in bad loans and a prolonged property
slump, the US faces its worst financial crisis since the Great
Depression.<br />
2009- October 31- The economic recession continues to deepen as
jobless claims climb above 10.0%, reaching 10.2% with October's monthly
figures. This occurs despite efforts by the Obama
administration
to ramp up massive government spending pushed by the $780 billion
economic stimulus package passed earlier in the year.<br />
<b>2012 </b>January - President Obama unveils a revised defence strategy
involving budget cuts, but insists US will maintain its military
superiority.<br />
2013- January 1- deadline for the fiscal cliff- in
which huge spending cuts will take place if Republicans and Demcorats
cannot come to an agreement on slashing the budget. The crisis is
narrowly averted by a partial deal on New years' Day.<br />
2013-
February- Democrats and Republicans fail to achieve a deal on further
budget cuts known as sequestrations, with resulting cuts to the military
and entitlements. <br />
<br />
<b>WORLD WAR TWO.</b><br />
<br />
1939- September 5- The United States declares its neutrality in the
European war after Germany invaded Poland, effectively beginning World
War II after a year of European attempts to appease Hitler and the aims
of expansionist Nazi Germany. (Photo below) U.S.
Troops
land on the beach at Normandy, France in 1944. The United
States
ended its neutrality after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December of
1941.<br />
<br />
1940- June 3-
The United States government approves a sale of surplus war material to
Great Britain.<br />
<b> </b><br />
1940- November 5, 1940 - President Franklin D. Roosevelt continues his
dominance of presidential politics with a 449 to 82 Electoral College
victory over Republican candidate Wendell Wilkie, winning his third
presidential election. Roosevelt becomes the first man to
hold
office for three terms.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>1941</b> -
Japanese warplanes attack US fleet at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii; US
declares war on Japan; Germany declares war on US, which thereafter
intervenes on a massive scale in World War II, eventually helping to
defeat Germany.<br />
1942- February 19, 1942 - Executive order 9066
is signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, confining
110,000 Japanese Americans, including 75,000 citizens, on the West
Coast into relocation camps during World War II. The remains
of
the first of these detention camps reside in California's Manzanar
National Historic Site. These camps would last for three
years.<br />
<br />
1942-
December 2- The first nuclear chain reaction is produced at the
University of Chicago in the Manhattan Project, creating fission of the
Uranium U-235, under the direction of physicists Arthur Compton and
Enrico Fermi.<br />
1943- July 10- The United States Army's 45th Infantry Division lands
on the island of Sicily, starting the campaign of Allied invasion into
Ax-s-controlled Europe. Nine days later, Rome is bombed by
Allied
forces. The conquest of Sicily would be completed on August
17
when U.S. forces under General Patton and British forces under Field
Marshall Montgomery arrive.<br />
<br />
1944- June 6- The Normandy Invasion, D-Day, occurs
when one hundred and fifty-five thousand Allied troops, including
American forces and those of eleven other Allied nations (Australia,
Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, and the United Kingdom). Allied
soldiers
stormed the beaches of France to begin the World War II invasion of
Europe that would lead to the liberation of Paris. Operation
Overlord gained footing quickly, pushing through the Atlantic Wall in
the largest amphibious military operation in history.<br />
<br />
1945- May 7, 1945 - The unconditional surrender of Germany at Reims, France
concludes the military engagements of World War II in Europe.
It
is accepted by General Dwight D. Eisenhower in his role as the
commander of Allied troops in the European theater of the war.<br />
1945- August 6- President Harry S. Truman gives the go-ahead
for
the use of the atomic bomb with the bombing of Hiroshima.
Three
days later, the second bomb is dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. On
August 15, Emperor Hirohito of Japan surrenders.<br />
<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="hpUEYq9yysTmQM:" 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" style="height: 183px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -8px; width: 264px;" /> <br />
Hiroshima <br />
<br />
<br />
1951- September 4- The inauguration of trans-continental television
occurs with the broadcast of President Truman's speech at the Japanese
Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco. The treaty would be
signed on September 8 by the U.S., Japan, and forty-seven other nations. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>THE COLD WAR.</b><br />
<br />
1947
- US enunciates policy of aid for nations it deems threatened by
communism in what became known as the Truman Doctrine. Cold War with
Soviet Union begins. <br />
<br />
<b>1948</b> - America's programme to revive
ailing post-war European economies - the Marshall Plan - comes into
force. Some $13bn is disbursed over four years and the plan is regarded
as a success.<br />
1949- October 14- Eleven leaders of the United States Communist party
are convicted of advocating a violent insurrection and overthrow of the
U.S. government. The Supreme Court would uphold the
convictions
on June 4, 1951. <br />
1950-54 - Senator Joseph McCarthy carries
out a crusade against alleged communists in government and public life;
the campaign and its methods become known as McCarthyism. In 1954
McCarthy is formally censured by the Senate. <br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1953- October 30- The Cold War continues in earnest when President Dwight D. Eisenhower approves </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">a top secret document stating that the U.S. nuclear arsenal must be expanded to combat the communist </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">threat around the world.</span> </pre>
1954- April 22, 1954 - Joseph McCarthy begins televised Senate hearings into
alleged Communist influence in the United States
Army.
Later this year, on December 2, the U.S. Congress votes to condemn
Senator McCarthy for his conduct during the Army investigation hearings.<br />
1959- January 7- The United States recognizes the new Cuban government
under rebel leader Fidel Castro. Castro becomes the Premier
of
Cuba on February 16.<br />
1960- May 1- In the Soviet Union, a United States U-2 reconnaissance
plane is shot done by Soviet forces, leading to the capture of U.S.
pilot Gary Powers and the eventual cancellation of the Paris summit
conference. On August 19, Powers is sentences by the Soviet
Union
to ten years in prison for espionage. On February 10, 1962 ,
he
would be exchanged for a captured Soviet spy in Berlin. <br />
<br />
<b>1961</b> - Bay of Pigs invasion: an unsuccessful attempt to invade Cuba by Cuban exiles, organised and financed by Washington. <br />
1962- February 7- The first sign of a
looming Vietnam conflict emerges when President Kennedy admits that advisors already in Vietnam would engage the enemy if fired
upon. The sending of these advisors acted as a compasspoint of
no return and there was no turning back once they took this crucial step which would inevitably lead
the country into this conflict. Many believe that this daywas the day that step was taken.<br />
<br />
<b>1962</b> -Oct- US compels Soviet Union to withdraw nuclear weapons from Cuba in what has become known as the Cuban missile crisis.<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1963</b> Nov. - President John F Kennedy assassinated; Lyndon Johnson becomes president</span></span><br />
<br />
<b>1964</b>
- US steps up its military intervention in Vietnam. <br />
1965- <big>
</big>
February 7- President Lyndon B. Johnson orders
the continuous bombing of North Vietnam below the 20th parallel.<br />
1966- June 29-
United States warplanes begin their bombing raids of Hanoi and
Haiphong, North Vietnam. By December of this year, the United
States had 385,300 troops stationed in South Vietnam with sixty
thousand additional troops offshore and thirty-three thousand in
Thailand.<br />
1967- June 23- A three day summit between President Lyndon B. Johnson
and Soviet Premier Aleksei Kosygin, held at Glassboro State College in
New Jersey, culminates in a mutual declaration that no crises between
them would lead to war. <br />
<b>1969</b>
- Republican Party candidate Richard Nixon elected president amid
growing public opposition to Vietnam war. US military presence in
Vietnam exceeds 500,000 personnel. <br />
1969- July 25- President Richard M. Nixon announces his new Vietnam
policy, declaring the Nixon Doctrine that expected Asian allies to care
for their own military defense. This policy, and all Vietnam
war
policies, would be heavily protested throughout the remainder of the
year. On November 15, 1969, more than two hundred and fifty
thousand anti-Vietnam war demonstrators marched on Washington, D.C. to
peacefully protest the war.<br />
<b>1972</b> - Nixon re-elected and makes historic visit to China.<br />
1973- January 27- Four part Vietnam peace pacts, the Paris Peace
Accords, were signed in Paris, France. The announcement of
the
military draft ending also occurred on that date. The last
U.S.
military troops would leave the war zone on March 29.<br />
<b>1973</b> - Vietnam ceasefire agreement signed. The campaign had claimed some 58,000 American lives.<br />
1977- January 21- The majority of Vietnam War draft
evaders, ten thousand in number, are pardoned by President Jimmy Carter.<br />
1977-September 21- Fifteen nations, including the United States and
the Soviet Union, sign a nuclear-non-proliferation pact, slowing the spread
of nuclear weapons around the world.<br />
1983-1990- The White House circumvents Congress to prosecute a secretly
funded war against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua.<br />
1983 -
US invades Caribbean nation of Grenada, partly prompted by its concerns
over the island's ties with Cuba. 1983- March 23 - The initial proposal
to develop
technology to intercept incoming missiles, the Strategic Defense
Initiative Program, or Star Wars, is made by President Ronald Reagan.<br />
1985-
November 19- The first meeting in six years between the leaders
of the Soviet Union and the United States occurs when Mikhail Gorbachev
and Ronald Reagan engage in a five hour summit conference in Geneva,
Switzerland.<br />
1986- "Irangate" scandal uncovered, revealing that
proceeds from secret US arms sales to Iran were used illegally to fund
Contra rebels in Nicaragua.<br />
1987- August 12- Near the end of hearings into the
Iran-contra affair, President Reagan admitted to a policy that went
astray, but denied knowledge of the diversion of funds to the contras.<br />
1987- December 8- The United States and the Soviet Union sign an
agreement, the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, to dismantle
all 1,752 U.S. and 859 Soviet missiles in the 300-3,400 mile range.<br />
1988-February 3 - The United States House of
Representatives rejects the request of President Reagan for $36.25
million to fund the Nicaraguan Contras<br />
1989- November 9, 1989 - The Berlin Wall, after thirty-eight years of
restricting traffic between the East and West German sides of the city,
begins to crumble when German citizens are allowed to travel freely
between East and West Germany for the first time. One day
later,
the influx of crowds around and onto the wall begin to dismantle it,
thus ending its existence.<br />
1990- February 7- The
Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party gives up its monopoly
of power, continuing the trend, since the beginning of the Berlin Wall
coming down, that the Cold War was about to end. The ending
of
the Cold War was completed, in many ways, by the strong policies of
U.S. President Ronald Reagan toward the Soviet block. Six
days
later, a plan to reunite Germany was announced. <br />
1992- January 26- The renewed nation of
Russia
and their leader Boris Yeltsin announce that they will stop targeting
the cities of the United States with nuclear weapons. <br />
<br />
<b>THE POST COLD WAR ERA. </b><br />
1997-
July 8- The NATO alliance expands into eastern Europe when it
extends an invitation to the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland to
join the alliance in 1999.<br />
1999 March-June - US
plays leading role in Nato bombardment of Yugoslavia in response to Serb
violence against ethnic Albanians in the province of Kosovo.<b> </b><br />
<b>2002</b>
January - State of the Union address: President George W Bush includes
Iraq, Iran and North Korea in what he describes as an "axis of evil".<br />
2010-US and Russia announce agreement on a new
nuclear arms reduction treaty to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty. The pact was to be signed on 8 April.President
Obama unveils a new defence policy significantly curtailing the
circumstances in which the US would use nuclear weapons<br />
2010-US and Russia announce agreement on a new
nuclear arms reduction treaty to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty. The pact was to be signed on 8 April.President
Obama unveils a new defence policy significantly curtailing the
circumstances in which the US would use nuclear weaponsto date.<br />
<br />
<b>TERRORISM </b><br />
<br />
<b>The Galleanists.</b><br />
<br />
1919-April-June - mail bombs sent to prominent members of
the US government, the FBI and Wall Street by the Galleanists, an
anarchist group; most of the bombs were diffused; a few exploded causing
injuries.<br />
<b>The Weather Underground</b> <br />
1969- The radical student underground group- the
Weathermen (Weather Underground) brings off the Haymarket Police
Memorial bombing in Chicago.<br />
1970- February- The Weathermen: the Park Precinct Police Station bombing.<br />
-Weathermen: molotov cocktail attacks on Jurdge Murtagh, New York City. <br />
1970- March- Weathermen nail bomb explodes prematurely in Greenwich Village apartment.<br />
1970- June- Weathermen explode a bomb at NYC Police headquarters.<br />
1972- May- Weathermen bomb a washroom in the Pentagon.<br />
<b>The Unabomber.</b> <br />
1978-1995-
Ted Kaczinski, "The Unabomber" carries out 23 bombings, mostly by mail,
maiming 23 and killing 3 in defense of his views on presrrving the
environment.<br />
<b>1993 World Trade Center Bombing</b> <br />
1993-
February 26- Islamic terrorists
detonate a massive truck bomb under the World Trade Center,
killing six
people and injuring over 1,000 in an effort to collapse the
towers.<br />
<b>Murrah Building, Oklahoma City</b> <br />
1995 - Oklahoma bomb kills more than 160 people in worst ever
incident of its kind in US. April 19- Anarchists Timothy McVeigh and
Terry Nichols explode a
bomb outside the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City.<br />
<b>The Centennial Olympic Park Bombing.</b> <br />
1996- Eric Rudolph a pro-life, anti-lesbian extremist bombed the Los Angeles Olympics, killing two and maiming 111. <br />
<b>US Africa Embassy Bombings</b> <br />
1998- August 7- Attacks on two United States embassies in Africa, in
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya kills two hundred and
twenty-four and injures four thousand five hundred. The
attacks
are linked to Osama Bin Laden and his Al-Qaeda organization.
On
August 13, the United States launches cruise missile strikes against
Al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan and a suspected chemical plant in the
Sudan.<br />
<b>9/11 Attacks</b> <br />
<b> </b><br />
2001
11 September - Co-ordinated suicide attacks on various high-profile
targets, prompting the US to embark on a ''war on terror'' which
includes the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq.<br />
2001 October - USA Patriot Act approved by the Senate, giving
the government greater powers to detain suspected terrorists, eavesdrop
on communications and counter money-laundering. In November, President
Bush signs a directive to try suspected terrorists in military tribunals
rather than the courts <br />
2002
November - President Bush signs into law a bill creating a Department of
Homeland Security, the biggest reorganisation of federal government in
more than 50 years. The large and powerful department is tasked with
protecting the US against terrorist attacks.<br />
2006 March - Congress renews the USA Patriot Act, a
centrepiece of the government's fight against terrorism, after months of
debate about its impact on civil liberties. The government agrees to
some curbs on information gathering.<br />
2006
May - The only man to be charged over the September 11 attacks,
self-confessed al-Qaeda conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui, is sentenced to
life in jail.<br />
<b>The Times Square Bombing Attempt.</b> <br />
2010- An Islamist Pakistani was arrested attempting to detonate a car bomb in Times Square.<br />
<br />
<b>THE ENVIRONMENT, MAN MADE AND NATURAL DISASTERS.</b><br />
<br />
1050-1200-
Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature
and drought. An increase in fire-related debris flow in alluvial fans of
northeastern Yellowstone National Park was linked to the period between
AD 1050 and 1200, coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period. (Wikipedia)<br />
1849-1905- major drought in Arizona. <br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1<span style="font-size: small;">871- </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">October 8-11- The great fire of Chicago, in legend started by a
kick from Mrs. O'Leary's cow, although in actuality likely started in
their cowshed by Daniel Sullivan, who first reported the
fire. <span style="font-size: small;"> </span>The fire caused $196 million in damages. It burned
1.2million acres of land, destroyed 17,450 buildings, killed 250 people,
and left 90,000 homeless</span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1871- Oct- Peshtigo, Michigan- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">The single worst wild fire in
U.S. history, in both size and fatalities, is known as the Great
Peshtigo Fire which burned 3.8 million acres (5,938 square miles) and
killed at least 1,500 in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan du</span><span class="small" id="entrytextsize">ring the week of October 8-14, 1871.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="small" id="entrytextsize">1<span class="small" id="entrytextsize">881- the Thumb forest fire in Michigan burns 1 million </span>acres.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="small" id="entrytextsize">1889- The Johnstown Flood in Pennsylvania- failure of a dam kills 2,209. </span></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="small" id="entrytextsize"><span class="small" id="entrytextsize">1894- Hinckley Forest Fire, Minnesota destroys 418.acres and kills 282.</span> </span> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1906- </span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">April 18-19<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> The San Francisco earthquake was estimated at 7.8 on the Richter
scale. Its proximity to the epicenter of the San Andreas<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Fault and the subsequent fire that followed </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">the quake and aftershocks<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>left 478 reported death, although estimates in the future peg that
figure at nearly 3,000. Between $350-$400 million in damages<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>were sustained.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1910- forest fire burns 3 million acres in Idaho and Montana, leaving 86 dead. </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1927- April 22- The Great Mississippi Flood occurs, affecting<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>over 700,000. </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1953- Mendocino Park Forest fire kills 15 firefighters in California </span></span></pre>
1970- April 22- The first Earth Day celebration is held with millions
of American participating in anti-pollution demonstrations.
These
demonstrations included school children walking to school instead of
riding the bus.<br />
1979- March 28- An accident at the Three Mile Island
nuclear power plant in Middletown, Pennsylvania occurs. when a partial
core meltdown is recorded. A tense situation ensued for five
days
until the reactor was deemed under control. It is
the
largest accident in U.S. nuclear power history and considered the worst
until the Soviet Chernobyl accident seven years later. <br />
1980- May 18- The Mt. St. Helens volcano, in Washington State, erupts,
killing fifty-seven people and economic devastation to the area with
losses near $3 billion. The blast was estimated to have the
power five hundred times greater than the Hiroshima atomic bomb.<br />
1988- fire destroys one third of Yellowstone National Park. <br />
1989- March 24- The Exxon Valdez crashed into Bligh Reef in Alaska's
Prince William Sound, causing the largest oil spill in American
history, eleven million gallons, which extended forty-five miles.<br />
1998- 2,200 forest fires in Florida require evacuation of 80,000.<br />
2000- U.S.- summer of forest forest throughout US burns about 7.2 million acres.<br />
2003- Oct- devastating cedar forest fires burn 800,000 acres in California. <br />
2005
August - Hundreds of people are killed when Hurricane Katrina, the most
destructive storm to hit the US in decades, sweeps through gulf coast
states. Much of the city of New Orleans is submerged by flood waters<br />
2006- Jan-March- wildfires throughout the US southern plains.<br />
2007- Severe forest fores in southern
California, wiping out residential areas in Malibu and San Diego <br />
2010 May-June - Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaster in the Gulf of Mexico causes the United States' biggest oil spill.<br />
2011- June- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">The Wallow Fire in Arizona and
New Mexico -the largest in history for the southwestern
United States with over 788 square miles (504,409 acres) charred.</span> <br />
2013- June- forest fores kill a crew of 19 elite firefighters in Arizona. </div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-33302650517690260272013-08-27T17:40:00.000-07:002013-08-27T17:40:23.710-07:00Forest Fire Threatens to Sweep Yosemite National Park, California.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<b>The Environment</b><br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="NEWB-ky1lXttcM:" 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" style="height: 180px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: -11px; margin-top: 0px; width: 271px;" /><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN BRIEF: </span>The frequency of forest fires may have increased, but the most severe in terms of acres consumed and lives lost happened over a century ago.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN THE NEWS:</span> YOSEMITE PARK, SIERRA NEVADA CALIFORNIA WILDFIRE HAS CONSUMED 282 SQUARE MILES OF FOREST.
'<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b></b></span>"If you look at the Sierra Nevada as a whole, by far the largest portion
hasn't seen a fire since the 1910s and 1920s, which is very unnatural,"
said Hugh Stafford, an ecologist with the U.S. Forest Service in California., who has authored several papers on the increasing
wildlife severity across California's mountain ranges. "This one isn't
stopping for a while." Since a 1988 fire impacted nearly one third of Yellowstone National
Park, forestry officials have begun rethinking suppression policies.' (AP)<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>THE FACTS: </b></span><br />
<br />
-the worst forest fires on record are well in the past: massive bush fires like the Great Peshtigo Fire in Michigan and the Matheson Fire, in Ontario -fires which burned over a million acres and killed over 200- are all before 1917.<br />
-as to whether an increase in forest fires is caused by climate change, the facts are always a matter of debate. One opinion in 2011: 'Fires in the 1960's and 1970's charred about 1 million hectares of land
in each year. “So it's already doubled in the last 40 years...and we've
published work that shows this is directly due to human caused climate
change,” says Dr. Flannigan, Professor with the Department of Renewable
Resources at the University of Alberta and Canadian Forest Service
researcher.'<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>IN HISTORY:</b></span><br />
<br />
1050-1200-
Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature
and drought. An increase in fire-related debris flow in alluvial fans of
northeastern Yellowstone National Park was linked to the period between
AD 1050 and 1200, coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period. (Wikipedia)
<br />
1825- Miramichi NB, Canada- forest fire kills 160.<br />
1871- Oct- Peshtigo, Michigan- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">The single worst wild fire in
U.S. history, in both size and fatalities, is known as the Great
Peshtigo Fire which burned 3.8 million acres (5,938 square miles) and
killed at least 1,500 in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan du</span><span class="small" id="entrytextsize">ring the week of October 8-14, 1871.</span><br />
1983- Ash Wednesday forest fires in Australia kill 1/2 million livestock and 76 people.<br />
2007- summer- Greece- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">3,000 fires burned 670,000 acres (1,046 square miles) in Greece, burning down 2,100 structures and killing 84 people</span>.<br />
2009- Feb-March- Black Saturday bush fires kill 173 in Victoria, Australia.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">RELEVANT DATES</span> for wildfire in Yosemite Natural Park.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-weight: bold; margin-left: 0.5in;">
The present Holocene Period Begins with the Late Peleolithic Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
15,000 BC–present Global Warming begins.<br />
-plains begin to give way to forests.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Iron Age.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1000 BC- temperatures decline. Rainfall increases.<br />
850 BC- 1660 AD- while many fires occurred during severe drought conditions, an increase
in the number of fires during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to
human influence. (Wikipedia)<br />
1
AD- 1750- Charcoal evidence from the Americas suggested a general
decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750 compared to previous years.
(Wikipedia) <br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Medieval Warm Periods.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1000- warming trend begins.<br />
1050-1200-
Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature
and drought. An increase in fire-related debris flow in alluvial fans of
northeastern Yellowstone National Park was linked to the period between AD 1050 and 1200, coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period. (Wikipedia) <br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Warming returns very slowly after Little Ice Age.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1750-1800- cold springs, warm autumns in Europe.<br />
1750-1870- a period of increased wildfire frequency between 1750 and 1870 was
suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia, attributed to
human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices. (Wikipedia) </div>
<br /></div>
</div>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Industrial Revolution.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
1825- Miramichi NB, Canada- forest fire kills 160. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1849-1905- major drought in Arizona.</div>
</div>
1851 -<b>wilderness conservation</b>
gets its first boost in the U.S. when a great tree "the Mother of the
Forest" is cut down to a storm of protest which leads in turn to the
inauguration of the a national parks system.<br />
<br />
<b>The Great Peshtigo Fire.</b> <br />
1871- Oct- Peshtigo, Michigan- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">The single worst wild fire in
U.S. history, in both size and fatalities, is known as the Great
Peshtigo Fire which burned 3.8 million acres (5,938 square miles) and
killed at least 1,500 in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan du</span><span class="small" id="entrytextsize">ring the week of October 8-14, 1871.</span><br />
1<span class="small" id="entrytextsize">881- the Thumb forest fire in Michigan burns 1 million </span>acres.<br />
<span class="small" id="entrytextsize">1894- Hinckley Forest Fire, Minnesota destroys 418.acres and kills 282.</span></div>
1910- forest fire burns 3 million acres in Idaho and Montana, leaving 86 dead.<br />
<br />
<b>Matheson, Ontario Forest Fire.</b> <br />
1916- Matheson forest fire- Ontario, Canada- kills 244.<br />
<br />
<b>Australia's 1939 Black Friday Bush Fire.</b> <br />
1939- Victoria, Australia, Black Friday bush fire kills 71<br />
1953- Mendocino Park Forest fire kills 15 firefighters in California<br />
1960-1970-
Fires in the 1960's and 1970's charred about 1 million hectares of land
in each year. “So it's already doubled in the last 40 years
(2011)...and we've
published work that shows this is directly due to human caused climate
change,” says Dr. Flannigan, Professor with the Department of Renewable
Resources at the University of Alberta and Canadian Forest Service
researcher.<br />
1967-Tasmanian bush fires kill 62. <br />
1983- Ash Wednesday forest fires in Australia kill 1/2 million livestock and 76 people.<br />
1988- fire destroys one third of Yellowstone National Park. <br />
1998- 2,200 forest fires in Florida require evacuation of 80,000.<br />
2000- U.S.- summer of forest forest throughout US burns about 7.2 million acres. <br />
2003- Siberia- taiga forests- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize"> one day in June satellites recorded 157 fires burning 27,181,000 acres (42,470 square miles) simultaneously.</span><br />
2003- July 30- Kamloops, McLure forestfire started by careless tossing of a cigarette- destroyed 72 homes.<br />
2003- Oct- devastating cedar forest fires burn 800,000 acres in California.<br />
2006- forest fires and drought in western Canada.<br />
2006- Jan-March- wildfires throughout the US southern plains.<br />
2007- summer- Greece- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">3,000 fires burned 670,000 acres (1,046 square miles) in Greece, burning down 2,100 structures and killing 84 people</span>.<br />
2007- Severe forest fores in southern
California, wiping out residential areas in Malibu and San Diego.<br />
2009- Jan-Feb-forest fires in southern Victoria kill more than 200.<br />
2009- Feb-March- Black Saturday bush fires kill 173 in Victoria, Australia.<br />
2010- Dec.- wildfires in northern Israel kill 40.<br />
2011- May- Slave Lake Wildfire, Alberta leaves 750 homeless. <b> </b><br />
2011- June- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">The Wallow Fire in Arizona and
New Mexico -the largest in history for the southwestern
United States with over 788 square miles (504,409 acres) charred so far,
far surpassing the Rodeo-Chediski fire of 2002. It is now probably in
the top ten largest single wild fires in U.S history (2011-</span><br />
http://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/the-worst-wild-fires-in-world-history)<br />
2011-
Fires in the 1960's and 1970's charred about 1 million hectares of land
in each year. “So it's already doubled in the last 40 years...and we've
published work that shows this is directly due to human caused climate
change,” says Dr. Flannigan, Professor with the Department of Renewable
Resources at the University of Alberta and Canadian Forest Service
researcher.<br />
2012- March- A mild, dry winter prompted the Alberta government to start the
wildfire season a full month earlier than usual. The season would be
long and disastrous, as several fires flared up across the Canadian and
U.S. West. The U.S. endured a near-record amount of destruction, as nine
million acres (an area roughly the size of Massachusetts and
Connecticut) burned. <br />
2013- June- forest fores kill a crew of 19 elite firefighters in Arizona. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF CLIMATE CHANGE</b><br />
<br />
<i>-with thanks, among others, to: http://www.aip.org/history/climate/timeline.htm </i><br />
<i>http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/a-climate-change-timeline/article4294575/</i><b><br /></b><br />
<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>15,000 BC- 1200 AD</b>:
In the long geological record, our own time is called the Holocene and
began as the Last Ice Age started to draw to a close, about 15,000 BC.
Within that larger scale, there commenced a long period of global
warming that continues today; and clearly the original causes of this
17,000 year period of warming were natural, while the causes of its
present extension and acceleration are not. (Large scale climate changes
usually last about 10,000 years- we may prove the exception). As
glaciers and the polar caps receded, sea levels rose at about a meter
per century until about 5,000 BC. Human progress moved more rapidly
taking a leap forward in the "Bolling Warm Period" in northern Europe, a
four-century time of intense development in hunting, crafts and other
skills from about 12,200 BC to 11,800 BC but still associated with the
'Mesolithic' or 'Middle Stone Age' period. Rising water levels produced
the present arrangement of continents, with Australia cut off from
Southeast Asia, England separated from continental Europe,
and the cutting of the Bering Strait between Siberia and Alaska.
Further warming, favourable to the beginnings of civilization, a period
known as 'the Atlantic Optimum' brought permanent human settlement in
the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East in abo0ut 9,000 BC and regular
farming by about 7,000 BC. A so-called 'golden age' of climate followed
with the 'Holocene Maximim' , a 'Neolithic' or 'Copper Age' period when
ideally warm conditions may have produced the agricultural 'Garden of
Eden' myths found in several cultures. Tropical growth along the Arabian
Sea and relatively humid conditions in the Sahara are typical of this
period. Agriculture improved along with climate and the Bronze Age
European Danubian people of 4,000 BC imported grains from the Middle
East, which wouldn't have survived before that time. At this point, the
natural "greenhouse gases" CO2 , CH4 and nitreous oxide increased to
safe levels which would remain the same until modern, pre-industrial
times. The optimum exceeded itself in Mesopotamia where drought wiped
out much of the population about 2000 BC. In contrast to this early
'optimum' there began a cooling and increase in rainfall known as the
'pessimum' of the Iron age around 1000 BC, descending to an especially
cold wave in 450 BC during the expansion of ancient Greece. By 250 BC,
the rise of Rome was qualified by a decline in rainfall which caused
wheat cultivation to be replaced by vineyards and olive groves. By 170
BC, when wetter conditions had returned, so much of the Italian
peninsula was taken up by vineyards and olive groves that grain had to
be imported to Rome from Egypt. Far to the east, a drying out of the
steppe caused Asian tribes to shift westward around 450 AD and
eventually to invade the Roman Empire. We must remember that these
'pessimums' and 'optimums' are oscillations within the larger and more
gradual warming that we still experience and which began about 15,000
BC. And sometimes, even, they are only local events. The next warming
began around 1000 AD and reached a balmy 'optimum' around 1150 AD in
Europe, although it's difficult to generalize for the rest of the globe.
The 'optimum' was short-lived, for a serious European cooling, known as
the 'Pessimum of the Modern Age' began about 1200. This would give way
to Europe's 'Little Ice Age'.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1200-2008: </span>By
the middle of the thirteenth century, the 'Little Ice Age' had begun in
Europe and glaciers were growing again. Late in the century, a
continent away, in the American south-west, blistering drought drove
native Americans southward. The pessimum in Europe, meanwhile, would
continue with variations, for five hundred years, into the 19th century.
There is some irony in the fact that within the larger, more gradual
Holocene warming that continues today, the largest single trend may have
been this long period of cooling. After 1300, glaciers expanded
quickly, temperatures dropped and rainfall increased. Fishing replaced
the growing of grain in Iceland. The "Little Ice Age" was at its worst
between 1400 and1700. Rivers began to freeze over in winter where they
had not done so before. The 17th century was a history of cruel winters,
crop failures, famine. Glaciers extended farther than ever down
mountain valleys. The nadir was reached at the end of the century. In
1697 one third of the population of Finland was killed by famine.
Glaciers reached their maximum extent in 1710. Cold springs and cool,
wet summers characterized the 18th century in Europe. The 'flour war' of
1775 in the Paris region erupted among farmers suffering crop failures.
The continuing 'Little Ice Age' had its role in sparking the French
Revolution: in 1788, a year before the fall of the Bastille, the French
grain crop was destroyed by hail, causing drastic food shortages. The
summer of 1816 proved the worst on record when famine followed frosts in
July. The Little Ice age then relented and drew to a close in the
middle of the 19th century. Glaciers began their retreat in 1856. The
warming was extremely gradual, though, staggered dramatically in 1883 by
the gigantic eruption of Mount Krakatoa in Indonesia, whose clouds of
ash dimmed and cooled the atmosphere the world over. In 1892 the first
theory in global warming caused by man-made C02 increases was advanced
by the Swedish scientist, Arrhenius. In the early 20th century, a
warming of the North Atlantic increased the growing 'optimum' in Europe.
There was a slower warming in the Middle East and south Asia. In
sub-tropical regions there were fewer cyclones, less rainfall and arid
regions expanded. In China and Russia, political genocide conspired with
periodic drought to cause massive famines. The 1930s saw the first
warming of the Arctic though it stopped around 1940 to resume again in
1970. In 1949 the British scientist Callendar, made the first provable
links between C02 increases and global warming trends from the 19th into
the 20th centuries. In 1966 there was famine in India. The oscillations
of the 20th century are rather frequent, providing a more complex
picture. 1942 to 1953 was a balmy, mild optimum followed by a cooling
trend until 1980. Afterward, the present trend toward hotter
temperatures began. A 1985 conference of the United Nations
Environmental Program and the World Meteorological Organization
established the first scientific consensus on global warming. There was
widespread agreement that greenhouse gases caused by increased human
economic activity, especially the use of fossil fuels, was affecting
weather patterns. Since 1988, the International Panel on Climate Change
and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has worked
toward getting coordinated international action on greenhouse gas
reductions. 1990, meawhile, was the hottest year, globally, on record.
In 2001, the Kyoto protocol
was signed by 178 countries- a commitment to reducing greenhouse gases
which has since begun to unravel due to disgreements about the need for
fossil-fuel based industries to maintain the lifestyle of rich nations
and raise the living standars of poor nations. Recently, the heating of
the atmosphere has caused record numbers of cyclones and hurricanes,
particularly in the Indian Ocean, the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico.
One of the worst was Hurricane Katrina which more or less destroyed New
Orleans, killing at least a thousand in 2005. In 2007 to 2008, heavy
rainfall, mudslides, disastrous flooding, raging forest fires, freak
cold spells and and massive snowfalls have been attributed to the
disruption of natural weather patterns by the Greenhouse Effect.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">200 Million BC- 15,000 BC: </span>From
200 million to about 2 million years ago, the world, still cooling from
its creation in the Big bang, was much warmer than it is now. In the
Cretaceous period, beginning about 100 million years ago, the earth was
hot, about 6 to 8 degrees above present temperatures. C02 levels were
much higher than now, significant changes in C02 being detectable over
spans of 1 million years. (As Thomas J. Crowley writes in <span style="font-style: italic;">Remembrance of Things Past: Greenhouse Lessons from the Geologic Record,</span>
“Barring a radical change in the manner in which energy is utilized in
the future, continued depletion of the fossil fuel reservoir in the next
few centuries could result in levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases
that are comparable to the warm time period of the Cretaceous.”) The
Cretaceous is the age of the first global cooling. But at the end of
that period, around 65 million BC, there was still tropical vegetation
and the presence of dinosaurs near today's Arctic Circle. The dinosaurs
became extinct around that time and in 53 million BC, the Eocene, of the
Age of the Mammals began and early primates and tropical vegetation
still flourished in the north regions. After the Miocene, beginning
about 25 million BC, the Pilocene saw the emergence of Homo Erectus and
the old Stone Age, with temperatures still warmer in 1 million BC than
they are today. Several ice ages followed before the Last Ice Age of
about 100,000 BC, in our Middle Stone Age. CO2 , CH4, and nitreous
oxide, commonly known as green-house gases, were at low levels. Low sea
levels associated with global cooling allowed human migrations across
land bridges from Southeast Asia to Australia and from Asia across the
Bering Strait to North America. The ice age reached its coldest point
around 20,000 BC. Humans survived using new technologies involving fire,
animal skins and methods of building. The Last Ice Age drew to a close
around 15,000 BC.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">CROSS-CENTURY SUMMARY:</span>
Since its formation, the earth has been cooling, with periods of
warming separated by ice ages along the way. The last 17,000 years or
'Holocene' period, the 'age of man' has been a time of warming since the
end of the last ice age. But the warming part of the cycle has been
distorted by artificially produced greenhouses gases, in addition to the
earth's natural C02. The Holocene is only a sliver of the entire life
of the earth but if indeed C02 emissions prolong this last warm period
and the cycle of ice ages has come to an end, man will have changed the
environment forever, and likely for the worse.<br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-27606137499554187692013-08-26T18:21:00.001-07:002013-08-27T07:38:54.731-07:00TIMELINE AND CHRONOLOGY FOR THE HISTORY OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND NATURAL DISASTERS- 360 Million BC to 2013 <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT:</span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
360 million BC- 70% of life forms on earth destroyed in a cataclysm.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
200 to 2 million BC- the world is much warmer than it is now. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Cretaceous Epoch</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
100
million BC- the Cretaceous period- height of warming- 6 to 8 degrees
above present temperatures. High levels of C02. Significant changes in
levels of C02 are detectable on spans of 1 million years. “Barring a
radical change in the manner in which energy is utilized in the future,
continued depletion of the fossil fuel reservoir in the next few
centuries could result in levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases that
are comparable to the warm time period of the Cretaceous.”- Remembrance
of Things Past: Greenhouse Lessons from the Geologic Record by Thomas J.
Crowley.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> First Cooling Begins.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-despite cooling, sub-tropical plants and animals still live far to the north.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
65 million BC- end of the age of dinosaurs, whose remains have been found as far north as Alaska.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Eocene Epoch</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
53 million BC- age of the mammals- tropical plant and primate remains have been found near the arctic circle. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
24 million BC- Miocene Epoch</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> 5 million BC- Pilocene Epoch</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-hominids walk the earth.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1.6 million BC- Pleistocene Period or Early Stone Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-homo erectus.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1 million BC- global climate is considerably warmer than today. Sea levels are higher by as much as 100 to 300 meters.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-in
the last 800,000 years there have been about 17 significant peaks and
valleys of temperature change. The high peaks represent interglacial
periods.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Holstein Period in Western Europe- 700,000 to 123,000 BC.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
620,000 BC- Ice age peaks (at its coldest)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
420,000 BC- Ice age peaks (at its coldest). Warming begins.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Hoxinian Phase of the Hostein Inter-glacial Period. Middle Pleistocene.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
330,000 BC- high sea-levels- 25 meters higher than present- the Hoxinian is named for Hoxne in eastern England.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-development of mixed woodlands in England.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
320,000 BC- Ice age peaks.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-during interglacial warming periods advances appear in human development.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> The Saale Glaciation Ice Age in northern Europe.</span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
250,000 BC- Ice Age peaks</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-Ice age ends, interglacial warming begins.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
200,000 BC- northern Europe is semi-tropical.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-appearance of early homo sapiens.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
140,000- BC- Ice age peaks (at its coldest)..</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
130,000 BC- next interglacial warming- temperatures similar to the present.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
130,000 BC- 120,000 BC- sea levels are 5-8 meters higher than at present.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
125,000 BC- end of the Saale Ice Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-weight: bold; margin-left: 0.5in;">
The ‘Eemian’ or Last Interglacial warming; beginning of Upper Pleistocene or Middle Paleolithic</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
123,000 BC- in some regions, a period of warming similar to that of the present day.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
120,000 BC- ‘Barbados III’ high sea levels.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-homo sapiens Neanderthalis- stone carving, stone tools. Brain capacity is close to that of modern man.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-humid tropics on the Arabian Sea coasts.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
115,000-80,000 BC –cool, wet period in Europe. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> The Last Ice Age</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
100,000
BC –Last Ice Age begins- The advance and retreat of ice ages is
attributed to the Milankovitch effect- slow changes in the orbit of the
earth which change the effect of solar radiation on the earth’s surface.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-‘Saint Germain 1’ heavy forest in NE France.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-‘Barbados II’ high sea levels.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-modern Homo Sapiens or ‘Crogmagnon’ man adapts relatively well to colder conditions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-near the equator, reduction of tropical rain forests and expansion of savannas. Northern tundras are dry.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-abundant
horses and reindeer in western Europe. Mammoths provide great
quantities of meat which keeps well in cold temperatures.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-CO2 , CH4 and nitreous oxide, commonly known as green-house gases are at low levels.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-due to ice and low sea levels, early humans cross the Bering Strait from Asia to populate North and South America.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
80,000
BC- cooling becomes more rapid. ‘Barbados I’ sea levels equal to
present. Most human settlement remains south of the Alps.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
70,000 BC- low sea levels allow migrations from Asia to Australia and Asia across the Bering Straits to North America.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-heavy ‘St. Germain 2' mixed oak and woodland in NE France.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
50,000 BC- homo sapiens sapiens.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-weight: bold; margin-left: 0.5in;">
End of Upper Pleistocene or Late Stone Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
30-20,000 BC- cooling or climatic deterioration forces migrating peoples south from Alaska.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-Neolithic man thrives in the Tibesti Massif, now the center of the Sahara desert.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
20,000
BC- maxumum cold of last ice age. Ice sheets 2 km thick extend as far
south as St. Louis Missouri. Sea levels, due to evaporated water stored
in ice sheets, are 105 meters below what they are today.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-human habitation driven south of the Alps. Mammoth hunting for food and shelter.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
16,000 BC- due to low sea levels, ( 130 meters below present levels) humans cross a land bridge from Asia to Australia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-weight: bold; margin-left: 0.5in;">
The present Holocene Period Begins with the Late Peleolithic Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
15,000 BC–present Global Warming begins.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-plains begin to give way to forests,</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Late Paleolithic.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-sea levels begin to rise, a trend that will continue until about 5,000 BC at a meter per century.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
13,000 BC- due to the arrival of warm winds, wheat-fields begin to be sown in the northern Middle East.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-the land bridge of the Bering Strait is finally cut.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Mesolithic Age.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
12,000-6000 BC- polar ice cap shrinks, ending the Last Ice Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
12,200- 11,800 BC- the Bolling warm period in northern Europe- period of rapid settlement,</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-intense cold period- the Older Dryas</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
11,600- 10,800 BC- the Allerod warm period in northern Europe- period of rapid settlement.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-human development becomes more rapid.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-water
level rises, cutting off Australian Aboriginies from East Asia. Britain
is cut off from Europe; Scandinavia from Germany; Russia from Alaska.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-European grasslands replaced with hardwood forest,</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9,000 BC -first permanent settlements start to appear in the Fertile Crescent.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-humans start populating coastal settlements.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7,000 BC- farming begins in the Fertile Crescent.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The ‘Atlantic Optimum’- the Holocene Interglacial; the Neolithic Age.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6,000
BC world-wide warming increases- caused by a massive flood of fresh
water into the Atlantic ocean; a warming trend that will last to the
present day. Climate change on this scale usually lasts for 10,000
years.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-heavy humid tropical growth on the Arabian Sea.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-the
decline in precipitation of the African-Asian Monsoon causes a drying
out especially in North Africa and the Middle East which continues to
this day.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-heavy ‘St Germain 2’ mixed oak and woodlands in NE France.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Holocene Maximum; Chalcolithic (Copper) age.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-‘golden age’ and ‘garden of eden’ myths of abundance are born.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5,500-2,350 BC- trend toward humidity in the Sahara. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-agriculture begins in the valley of the Indus and Mesopotamia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Proto Dynatic Period.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4,200-
4,000 BC- Danubian people in the Rhine region begin growing grains
brought from the Middle East due to temperate climate shift.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4,000-3,000
BC- the warm, ‘sunny’ millennium, world-wide, said to be similar to
today but this example cannot be used to project a similar pattern into
the future.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-CO2 , CH4 and nitreous oxide, commonly known as green-house gases increase to levels found in modern, pre-industrial times.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Bronze Age- dawn of human pollution, </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3000 BC- the period of warming culminates. Warming ceases.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2000 BC- drought wipes out much of the population in Mesopotamia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-first
cities and towns: air pollution from tanneries, dust, manure and smoke.
Water pollution is especially bad in ancient Rome; in India and Israel,
religious purity laws keep water cleaner.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-timbering strips land in Phoenicia, Italy, Greece, Babylon, Italy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Iron Age.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1000 BC- temperatures decline. Rainfall increases.<br />
850 BC- 1660 AD- while many fires occurred during severe drought conditions, an increase
in the number of fires during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to
human influence. (Wikipedia) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-The Pessimum of the Iron Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
450 BC- a cold wave in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
500-400 BC- decline of the ‘northern Bronze Age' in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
250
BC- declining rainfall helps to put an end to the agrarian age of the
Roman Republic. Dependence on corn and wheat shifts to the cultivation
of olive orchards and vineyards. Gradually, grain has to be imported.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Rome</span><br />
1
AD- 1750- Charcoal evidence from the Americas suggested a general
decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750 compared to previous years.
(Wikipedia) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
170 AD- climate dampens; but Rome’s best land is taken up by olive groves and vineyards, so grain still has to be imported.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
400 AD- gradual drying out of the steppe and Gobi desert help to prompt the Barbarian invasions of Rome.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Serious soil erosion in Italy, </b></span>due to over-grazing by goats has been held as a contributing cause for the fall of the Roman Empire.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Medieval Warm Periods.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1000- warming trend begins.<br />
1050-1200-
Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature
and drought. An increase in fire-related debris flow in alluvial fans of northeastern Yellowstone National Park was linked to the period between AD 1050 and 1200, coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period. (Wikipedia) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1100-1200- warming trend reaches its high point.- although it remains uncertain whether this was true around the globe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1200- The Pessimum of the Modern Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-heavy rains ruin English crops and vineyards.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1250 AD- glaciers begin to grow.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1276-1299- Great Drought in SW America- Indians driven southward.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1300-1800- general growth of glaciers causes a cold wet period.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-fishing replaces agriculture in Scandinavia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1310-1323- rainy period in Europe. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1315- Europe: year of floods.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The ‘Little Ice Age’</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1300-1500- cooling of the global climate.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1300-1350- fishing replaces cereal-growing in Iceland.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>The Bubonic and other plagues </b>wipe out populations in Europe and Asia, gradually prompting a movement toward public health.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Large regions made vulenerable to erosion</b> due to heavy wood cutting and timber clearing throughout the middle ages in England, France and Germany. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1450-1890-
the ‘Little Ice Age’ at its broadest definition. Rivers freeze in areas
where they are unfrozen today and glaciers reach their lowest altitude.<br />
<br />
<b>Warming 'Interruption"</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1460-1550- southwest Baltic and Thames River remain unfrozen.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-warm period peters out in 1550.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<b>Cooling Continues</b> <br />
1550- cooling in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1588- an immense storm in the English Channel sinks the Spanish Armada, killing about 20,000 sailors.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1590-1850- the “long advance” of the glaciers.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1590-1650- cold winters in Europe. Crop failures in Scandinavia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1600-1710- advance of glaciers accelerates</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1630-1699- repeated periods of bad harvest in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1689-1698- severe cold in Europe: the ‘Little Ice Age.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1693-1694- very poor harvests in Europs.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1697- famine kills 1/3 of population of Finland.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1709- severe cold; crop failure and famine in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Warming returns very slowly after Little Ice Age.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1710- glaciers reach their maximum.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1710-1750- cold winters persist but summers are warmer in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1740- ‘arctic’ winter in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>The environment </b>becomes
a concern during the Enlightenment as free-thinking individuals begin to
denounce slums, poor drinking water and inhumane conditions in prisons.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1750-1800- cold springs, warm autumns in Europe.<br />
1750-1870- a period of increased wildfire frequency between 1750 and 1870 was
suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia, attributed to
human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices. (Wikipedia) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1756- the Lisbon earthquake.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1765-1775- cold, wet summers in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1755- the 'flour war'- the poor in the Paris region revolt over shortages.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1780- massive hurricane sweeps the Caribbean, leaving 20,000 dead.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Water pollution </b>recognized as a serious problem in the Unites States by Benjamin Franklin. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1788- July 13- hail storm destroys the French harvest.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1789- severe food shortages in France.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>1798- The food supply</b>
is bound to be outstripped by population increase leading to inevitable
starvation if not stemmed by vice, disease, or 'self restraint'
according to Thomas Malthus in his <i>Essay on Population.</i> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Industrial Revolution Increases Greenhouse Gases</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>1800-1870 </b>-
Level of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) in the atmosphere,
as later measured in ancient ice, is about 290 ppm (parts per million) <br />
1816- worst summer on record in northern Europe: frost in July followed by famine,<br />
1824<b>- </b>Fourier calculates that the Earth would be far colder if it lacked
an atmosphere<br />
1825- Miramichi NB, Canada- forest fire kills 160. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1849-1905- major drought in Arizona.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-<b>water pollution</b> caused by the dripping of tar from coal gas into river.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-<b>air pollution </b>from coal smoke and chemical factories.<br />
-Mean global temperature (1850-1870) is about 13.6°C.
<br />
-First Industrial Revolution. Coal, railroads, and land clearing speed
up greenhouse gas emission, while better agriculture and sanitation speed
up population growth.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1851 -<b>wilderness conservation</b>
gets its first boost in the U.S. when a great tree "the Mother of the
Forest" is cut down to a storm of protest which leads in turn to the
inauguration of the a national parks system.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1855- <b>water pollution</b> is discovered as the cause for cholera when a London epidemic is traced to a contaminated pump by Dr. John Snow.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Little Ice Age is Over- 1856- warming: glaciers begin to retreat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>-urban epidemics of typhoid and cholera </b></span>vindicate
the protests of reformers pointing to appalling poverty, filth and
water contaimation in the urban slums of Britain and America.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>-incidents of heavy smog</b> <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>lead to deaths in London and other large cites in Britain.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1864- cyclone in Calcutta kills 70,000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1870-1950- glaciers in retreat.<br />
1871- Oct- Peshtigo, Michigan- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">The single worst wild fire in
U.S. history, in both size and fatalities, is known as the Great
Peshtigo Fire which burned 3.8 million acres (5,938 square miles) and
killed at least 1,500 in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan during the week of October 8-14, 1871.</span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1876- cyclone in Bangladesh kills about 215,000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1876-1879- 9 million die from drought and famine in China.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1881- typhoon is China kills 300,000.<br />
1881- the Thumb forest fire in Michigan burns 1 million acres and kills 282. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>-water pollution</b> as a source of disease gradually being understood by science.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1883-
ash from the explosion of Karakatoa volacano may have caused cooling,
by diffusing 18 cubic kilometers of dust through the air, blocking the
sun.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1887- about 1 million die in flooding when China's Yellow River overflows its banks.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1889- Johnstown Flood (Penn) killes 2,200 after heavy rainfall and dam failure.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Warming North Atlantic.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1890-1940-
warming in north Atlantic areas like Europe and the United States. Less
pronounced warming in India, Indonesia and the Middle East.
Northeastern Canada, most of South America, southwest Africa, Central
Asia, Pakistan, the Indian Ocean, southeast Asia nd Australia are
unaffected.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1890-1940- in subtropical areas: decrease in rainfall, fewer cyclones, expansion of arid zones.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1890-1950- infrequency of volcanic eruptions and absence of volcanic cloud said to be a partial cause of warming.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1890- European glaciers begin to retreat.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1892- London smog results in 1,000 deaths.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1892- Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist is pioneer in the theory of global warming increased by C02 greenhouse gases.<br />
1894- Hinckley Forest Fire, Minnesota, kills 418.<br />
<br />
<b>The Progressive Era.</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-food
and water safety, sanitation, workplace pollution, living and working
conditions for the poor and working classes receive attention in the
U.S. from reformers in the 'Progressive Era.'</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1900- Galveston Texas hurricane kills 6,000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>-land conservation and a 'wise' use policy for commercial lumbering</b>
put forward by US president Teddy Roosevelt. John Muir opposes 'wise
use' and instead advocates universal wilderness preservation.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>-social activists make progress in a sllow, uphill battle.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b> -struggle for conservation and urban reform </b>is waged by the Women's Club and the Sierra Club.<br />
1906- San Francisco earthquake and fire kills about 600. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1907- famine in China kills about 20 million.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1909- F4 tornado in Brinkley, Arkansas kills 49.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1910- forest fire burns 3 million acres in Idaho and Montana, leaving 86 dead.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1914-1918- World War I produces Mass Industrialized Societies.</span><br />
1916- The Netherlands. North Sea storms flood lowlands. 10,000 lives lost.<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1916- Matheson forest fires- Ontario, Canada- kills 244.<br />
1920-1940- marginal warming in the Mediterranean.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1921- droughts in the Ukraine and elsewhere in the Soviet Union kill around 5 million.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1924- <b>pollution of the US Atlantic seaboard</b>
leads to the National Coast Anti-pollution League which in turn gets an
international oil dumping treaty passed in the US Congress. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1925- the Tri-state tornado in Missouri, Illinois and Indiana kills 700.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1928- drought ad famine in China kill 3 million.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1929-1938- warming summers in Poland, Lapland and Russia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>-leaded gasoline</b> brought in for universal use by General Motors despite the determined activism of Alice Hamilton. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1930s- acceleration of warming in the Arctic. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1931- flooding in China kills 3.7 million.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1932- famine in Russia kills 5 million.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1936- 5 million die in China's 'New Famine'.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1935- the Great Labour Day Hurricane hits the Florida Keys- the strongest ever upon landfall.<br />
1938- North China. Chinese forces blow up dikes on the Huang He to impede Japanese advance. Estimated 1 million lives lost.<br />
1939- Victoria, Australia, Black Friday bush fore kills 71. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1940-1970- no further warming in the Arctic.</div>
1941-42- 3 million dead in famines in China.<br />
<b>Auto, chemical and oil companies </b>of
the US working with the Nazi company Farben to develop leaded gasoline.
Meanwhile the development of synthetic rubber is put to a stop.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Mid-20th Century Climatic Optimum</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">-chemicals from renewable resources and synthetic rubber</span> are finally used by the allies to win the war. <span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
1942-1953- balmy, optimum summers in Europe.<br />
1948- <b>deadly smog- </b>Dora, Pennsylvania.<br />
1948- <b>individual responsibility toward humanity and the world </b>first treated in Aldo Leopold's 'Sand County Almanac.'<br />
1949-
Callendar, a British scientist connects the 10% increase in C02 gases
between 1850 and 1940 to the warming of Europe and North America since
the 1880s.<br />
<br />
1950- hurricanes start to be named alphabetically.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Optimum Gives way to 3 decades of Cooling s Urban air pollution increases.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
1950-1980- a cooling trend.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1952- December smog in London held responsible for deaths of 4,000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1952- flood in Devon kills dozens.<br />
1953- <b>deadly smog </b>in New York. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1953- storms and flooding kill dozens in East Anglia.<br />
1953- Mendocino Park Forest fire kills 15 firefighters in California <br />
1955- <b>first international air pollution conference. </b> <br />
1956-<b> Deadly smog </b>in London.<br />
1957- <b>increasing CO2 build-up </b>detected by Scripps Oceanographic institute.<b> </b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1958- Typhoon Vera in Japan kills 5,000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1958-
Keeling, a scientist with the Kripps Institute makes the first reliable
measurements of C02 at 312 parts per million and rising in the
atmosphere at the Mona Loa observatory in Hawaii.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1962- last major smog in London.<br />
1960-1970-
Fires in the 1960's and 1970's charred about 1 million hectares of land
in each year. “So it's already doubled in the last 40 years
(2011)...and we've
published work that shows this is directly due to human caused climate
change,” says Dr. Flannigan, Professor with the Department of Renewable
Resources at the University of Alberta and Canadian Forest Service
researcher.<br />
<br />
<b>Rachel Carson's 'Silent Spring'.</b> <br />
1962- <b>perhaps the first widespread, public warning about the environment</b> appears with Rachel Carson's 'Silent Spring.'<br />
1962-<b> the Ethyl corporation is sold off, having developed leaded oil</b> for General Motors and Standard Oil<b> </b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1963- planetary cooling accompanied by subtropical rainfall.<br />
1965- US Senate hearings reveal falsified research into leaded gasoline. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1966- famine in India kills 1.5 million<br />
1967-Tasmanian bush fires kill 62..</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1969- Hurricane Camille, hits Gulf Coast in US killing hundreds- strongest of 20th century.<br />
<br />
<b>River of Fire, Love Canal and Three Mile Island.</b> <br />
1969-<b> oil and chemicals saturating </b><b>the Cuyahoga River near Cleveland, Ohio catch fire</b> on June 22, leaving an entire river in flames.<br />
1969- <b>Conference on Man and His Environment in San Franciso.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1969- famine in China kills about 200 million.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1970- Cyclone and tidal wave in Bangladesh kills about 300,000.<br />
1970- <b>Environmental Protection Agency </b>inaugurated by US government. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1971- 100,000 killed in floods in Viet Nam.<br />
1971- Orissa State, India. Cyclone and sea surge hit the coast. 10,000 lives lost. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1972- blizzards kill 4,000 in Iran.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1973- monsoons in India kill 1,200.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1974- April 3-4th -340 killed in 148 separate tornados in US.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1977- 20,000 killed by cyclone in India.<br />
<b>-air pollution significantly reduced by use of catalytic converters in new cars using unleaded fuel.</b><br />
<b>-wa</b>t<b>er pollution in North America is alleviated by sewage treatment technology as rivers and lakes are brought back to life.</b><br />
1978-<b> decades of dumping toxic waste</b>
into the Niagara Falls NY Love Canal before it was covered over and
built with housing ends in a waste explosion and the poisoning of homes
and yards for hundreds lof residents. <br />
1979- <b>a partial core meltdown</b> at the Three Mile Island nuclear plant in Pennsylvania draws attention to the dangers of nuclear technology. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1979- Hurricane David kills 2,000 in Caribbean and Eastern US.<br />
<b>-the pollution of the ground, water and air with toxic chemicals continues to be a serious problem.</b><br />
<br />
<b>Greenhouse Effect Believed Beyond Doubt.</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1980: Greenhouse effect becomes apparent with warming trend. International committees get down to work.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1981- Nov 21- 104 tornadoes hit the UK.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1983- Ash Wednesday forest fires in Australia kill 1/2 million livestock and 76 people.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1984-<b> Dec. 2- gas poisoning kills over 2,000 in an industrial accident</b> at the Union Carbide plant in Bhopal India. <br />
1985-
a conference of the United Nations Environmental Program and the World
Meteorological Organization establishes scientific consensus on global
warming.<br />
1985- <b>environmental activism </b>receives a blow but
with publicity as the Greenpeace vessel, the Rainbow Warrior is bombed
in New Zealand by French secret service agents.<br />
<br />
<b>Chernopbyl, the Ozone Layer and the Exxon Valdez.</b> <br />
<b>1986- major meltdown of a nuclear reactor</b> at Chernobyl in the Ukraine leaves long-term damage to people, plant and animal life<br />
<br />
1987- <b>the destruction of the ozone layer by fluorocarbons </b>finally gets a response from margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan when they sign the Montreal Protocol.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1988-
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) lays down
international consensus on scientific conclusions about climate change.<br />
1989- March 24- <b>a massive tract of Alaskan shoreline is fouled, </b>destroying
sea life, plant life and livelihoods as the Exxon Valdez tanker runs
aground spilling ten million gallons of crude oil into the Pacific. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1989- tornado kills 1,300 in Bangladesh.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1990- globally, the hottest year on record.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1990- the first IPCC report leads to negotiations for a United nations Framework Convention of Climate Change (FCCC).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1991- last London smog.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1991- 130,000 killed in Bangladesh cyclone.<br />
-war-related <b>environmental disaster</b> created when Persian Gulf conflict ends in thousands of burning oil wells. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1992- hurricane Andrew in Florida causes 26 billion dollars in damage.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The FCCC and the IPCC.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1992-
Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro- countries meet to sign the United
nations Framework Convention of Climate Change (FCCC) . The Convention's
goal is to "prevent dangerous (human) interference with the climate
system." Industrialized nations agree to implement policies and measures
with the aim of stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at 1990
levels by 2000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1993- the Great Midwest Flood in Mississippi Valley causes 18 billion dollars in damage.</div>
1994- <b>international protest concerning the probable environmental impact </b>of China's Three Gorges Dam fails to stop construction from beginning on schedule. <br />
1994- March 24- the FCCC signed at Rio DeJaneiro in 1992 comes into effect.<br />
1995- <b>environmental activist Ken Siro Wawa executed</b> by the Nigerian government after criticizing oil drilling practices of Shell oil which worked closely with Nigeria.<br />
1995-
the First Conference of the Parties (CoP1) of the FCCC held in
Berlin.The second IPCC report declares ". . . the balance of evidence
suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate."
This is a new benchmark of international scientific consensus.<br />
<br />
1996-
-Second Annual Conference of the Parties (CoP2) held in Geneva.
Conference endorses the IPCC finding of a "discernible human influence
on global climate" and that "projected change in climate will result in
significant, often adverse, impacts on many ecological systems and
socio-economic sectors, including food supply and water resources and on
human health."<br />
1997-2013- Floods in Manitoba, Canada in 1997, 2005, 2009, 2011, 2013. <br />
1998- Floods- Sudan. Torrential rains flood the Nile. 1.5 million homeless in Khartoum area; numbers of dead unknown. <br />
1998- Floods- Central and northeastern China. Disastrous river flooding leaves more
than 3,000 dead, 5 million homes destroyed, and tens of millions of
farmland hectares submerged; 14 million people are evacuated. <br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
1998- Hurricane Mitch causes huge damage in Honduras.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1998- 2,200 forest fires in Florida require evacuation of 80,000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1999- 318 MPH tornado hits Oklahoma City.<br />
2000- U.S.- summer of forest forest throughout US burns about 7.2 million acres in the west and southwest.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Kyoto.</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>2001- Ex-President Bill Clinton's pro-environmental policy</b></span> gives way to deregulation in favour of industry under President-elect George Bush. <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2001- July 7- 178 countries sign onto the Kyoto protocol on the reduction of Greenhouse gases.<br />
2001- extreme flooding in Viet Nam and Cambodia</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2001- extreme flooding in Mozambique and southeast Africa.<br />
<br />
2003- Siberia- taiga forests- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize"> one day in June satellites recorded 157 fires burning 27,181,000 acres (42,470 square miles) simultaneously.</span><br />
2003- July 30- Kamloops, McLure forestfire started by careless tossing of cigarette- destroyed 72 homes. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2003- Oct- devastating cedar forest fires burn 800,000 acres in California and kill 24<br />
2003-
Dec 26- Bam earthquake, Iran- Bam (Iran) Earthquake 26,271 people
were killed when the city of Bam, Iran was flattened by a 2003
earthquake. The earthquake’s magnitude was 6.6 and 80 percent of the
area’s buildings were damaged or destroyed, likely because Iran lacks an
earthquake education program and most of the buildings were made of mud
brick. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2004- Hurricanes Charlie, Francis, Ivan and Jean hit Florida, causing 22 billion in damage.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Hurricane Katrina</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2005- Hurricane Katrina leaves thousands dead and over a million homeless in new Orleans.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2005- scientists observe rapid melting of the polar ice caps and a slowing of the Gulf stream which warms northern Europe.<br />
2005- Floods in Manitoba, Canada in 1997, 2005, 2009, 2011, 2013. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2006- forest fires and drought in western Canada.<br />
2006- Jan-March- wildfires throughout the US southern plains. <br />
2007- South Asia. Heavy rains, flash floods, and landslides during the monsoon
season displace approximately 16 million people in South Asia: 11
million in India, 4.5 million in Bangladesh, and about 250,000 in Nepal.
In some places the water level reaches as high as 3.7 m (12 ft).<br />
2007- Floods- England. Several days of torrential rain following the wettest summer
since 1766 causes the worst flooding in 60 years. More than 130,000
homes and businesses are swamped, and 340,000 people are either
evacuated or trapped in their homes. The Royal Air Force (RAF) carries
out its biggest peacetime rescue operation, airlifting people from
flood-hit areas.<br />
2007- summer- Greece- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">3,000 fires burned 670,000 acres (1,046 square miles) in Greece, burning down 2,100 structures and killing 84 people.</span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2007-
severe droughts southeast US- Cyclone in Bangladesh kills over 1,000;
severe flooding in Mexico; Hurricane Felix causes severe damage in
Caribbean and Central America; flooding in South Asia displaces 30
million. Severe flooding in Mozambique. Severe forest fores in southern
California, wiping out residential areas in Malibu and San Diego.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2008- blizzards cause deaths and paralyze parts of Iran and China. Severe flooding in Peru and Bolivia.<br />
2008-
May 2- Cyclone Nargis, Burma- Approximately 140,000 people were killed
in Burma (Myanmar) when the Cyclone Nargis touched land. The storm
included winds of up to 120 mph which passed directly over the most
populated areas of the region. 95 percent of buildings in the area were
destroyed.<br />
2008- Floods- India. In the worst monsoon flooding in India in 80 years, the Kosi
River breaches its banks along the border with Nepal and forms a new
path through Bihar, India; more than 2 million are affected and 225,000
homes are destroyed. <br />
2008- May 12- Earthquake in Sichuan, China kills over 80,000. <br />
2008-
26 Dec. Bam (Iran) Earthquake 26,271 people were killed when the city
of Bam, Iran was flattened by a 2003 earthquake. The earthquake’s
magnitude was 6.6 and 80 percent of the area’s buildings were damaged or
destroyed, likely because Iran lacks an earthquake education program
and most of the buildings were made of mud brick.<br />
<br />
<b>Keystone Pipeline</b> <br />
2009- Jan-May- The State Department conducts 20 meetings to explore the issues raised by the EIS.<br />
TransCanada consults with federal and state agencies and Native American Tribes.<br />
2009- Jan-Feb-forest fires in southern Victoria kill more than 200.<br />
2009- Feb-March- Black Saturday bush fires kill 173 in Victoria, Australia.</div>
2009-
The Copenhagen Summit of leading nations on climate change fails to
produce significant agreements let alone resolutions as developing
nations defend their right to full use of carbon technologies and refuse
to be lectured to by major polluters of the G-8.<br />
2009- Floods- Northwest Queensland, Australia. Cyclones Domini and Ellie saturate the
area with 356 mm (14 in) of rain, causing the worst floods on record.
Rivers overflow their banks and submerge more than 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (386,100 mi<sup>2</sup>),
inundating thousands of homes and devastating the sugarcane and cattle
industries. Damages are estimated at more than $210 million. <br />
2009- Floods- Samoan Islands. An offshore earthquake, magnitude 8.0, triggers tsunami
waves of up to 6 m (20 ft) high that flatten villages for up to 1 km
(0.6 mi) inland on the shores of Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga in the
Pacific Ocean; more than 189 lives are lost.<br />
2009- Floods -Philippines. Mudslides and the worst flooding in over 60 years occur
after two tropical systems strike the island within a week. Tropical
storm Ketsana dropped 42.4 cm (16.7 in), of rain in just 12 hours. Days
later, slow-moving Typhoon Parma added another astounding 120.4 cm (47.4
in) of rain. President Gloria Arroyo declares a nationwide state of
calamity. At least 3 million people are affected, and more than 540 die;
damage exceeds $250 million. <br />
<br />
<b>Keystone Pipleline-</b> <br />
2010- March-April- Canada’s National Energy Board (NEB) approves the Canadian leg of Keystone XL.<br />
Natural
Resources Defense Council reports Keystone will thwart efforts to
increase reliance on clean energy sources. Draft EIS finds the pipeline
would have limited adverse
environmental impacts and subsequent environmental assessments by the
department result in similar findings. EIS criticized for lack adequate
information, including greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
2010- April-August- The State Department solicits comments on the proposed pipeline.<br />
Members of U.S. Congress call on Secretary of State Hilary Clinton
to study Keystone XL with respect to clean energy and climate change
priorities.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>The Gulf Oil Spill.</b> <br />
2010- May-August- <b>the worst environmental disaster in US history </b>unfolds
after the explosion of a British Petroleum oil rig in the Gulf of
Mexico, threatening the livelihoods of thousands of fishermen and
destroying a region still recovering from the impact of Hurricane
Katrina. <br />
<br />
Aug. 3- massive monsoon flooding which kills
over 1,500 in Pakistan's Swat Valley is exacerbated by climate change
with the melting of the Himalayan glaciers which feed Pakistan's rivers.
<br />
2010- Oct- Labour unions representing 2.5 million workers urge the State Department to approve <b>Keystone Pipeline. </b>Secretary of State Clinton says she is inclined to approve Keystone XL.<br />
<br />
<b>Earthquake, Port Au Prince, Haiti.</b><br />
2010- Dec. 1-<b> -</b>the Haitian city of Port Au Prince is destroyed, killing<b> </b>over 200,000.<br />
2010- Dec.- wildfires in northern Israel kill 40. <br />
2010- Dec- Philippine Floods- Widespread flooding occurred in the east. The Visayas and the Bicol and Caraga regions
have been particularly affected by abnormally heavy rains. The floods
have displaced 452,999 persons in 19 provinces, and has caused the
deaths of 25 people.<br />
2011- Jan. 5:US- Republican Majority Eliminates House Committee on Global Warming<br />
2011- Jan- TransCanada agrees to 57 safety measures requested by the State
Department and the <b>Keystone Pipeline</b> and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration relating to the construction, operation and design of the
pipeline.<br />
<br />
<b>World Population reaches 1 Billion</b> <br />
2011-<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> The world population reaches 7 billion, and is increasingly interconnected</span></span><br />
One
third of those have Internet access; 80 per cent have mobile phones.
Increasing the population by 1 billion took only 12 years. <br />
<br />
2011- Feb 22- Earthquake in Auckland, new Zealand kills 182.<br />
2011- March: US House Committee Votes Against Climate Change Amendment <br />
2011- April 28- Hurricanes in Alabama kill 294<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">2011-Climate change negotiations in Durban.The negotiations’ outcome is a step forward in </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">establishing
an international agreement beyond Kyoto—one with mitigation commitments
from all major emitters,including developed countries and several major
developing countries.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">2011- Apr. June- </span></span>The State Department seeks public comment on <b>Keystone XL.</b><br />
2011- May- Slave Lake Wildfire, Alberta leaves 750 homeless. <b> </b><br />
2011- June- <span class="small" id="entrytextsize">The Wallow Fire in Arizona and
New Mexico -the largest in history for the southwestern
United States with over 788 square miles (504,409 acres) charred so far,
far surpassing the Rodeo-Chediski fire of 2002. It is now probably in
the top ten largest single wild fires in U.S history (2011-</span><br />
http://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/the-worst-wild-fires-in-world-history)<br />
2011-
Fires in the 1960's and 1970's charred about 1 million hectares of land
in each year. “So it's already doubled in the last 40 years...and we've
published work that shows this is directly due to human caused climate
change,” says Dr. Flannigan, Professor with the Department of Renewable
Resources at the University of Alberta and Canadian Forest Service
researcher.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Climate Change and Tornadoes.</b></span></span></div>
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2011-
"Global warming does indeed increase the moisture content of the air
(because hotter air holds more moisture), which increases the likelihood
of vertical clouds forming. However, those vertical clouds won't turn
into tornadoes without the
wind shear, and "the expectation is that there will be less of that wind
shear with global warming," said David Easterling, chief of the Global
Climate Applications Division at NOAA's National Climatic Data Center.
"Part of it is because you have an expansion of the tropical climate
regime up into the higher latitudes," and in the tropics, there is less
wind shear. So with one tornado-conducive factor being increased and
the other
being decreased, it's really hard to say how global warming affects
tornado activity. But scientists are still looking into it.
"Inconclusive data does not lead you to conclude that there's no
evidence of a connection," said Martin Hoerling, a National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) research meteorologist.<br />
<i>-http://www.livescience.com/14341-climate-change-causing-record-breaking-tornadoes-floods.html </i><br />
2011- Aug-Sept- Protesters in Washington call on the Obama administration to reject<b> Keystone XL.</b><br />
<br />
<b>Keystone Pipeline </b><br />
-EIS report finds no major environmental risks have been found and
the project would negatively affect certain cultural resources.<br />
2011- Nov- On November 10, U.S. Department of State (DOS) suspends permitting
process for Keystone XL until re-route to avoid the Nebraska Sandhills
is complete.<br />
A Presidential Permit for the pipeline will likely not occur until Q1 2013.<br />
Agreement is reached to pursue an alternate pipeline route to avoid Nebraska Sandhills.<br />
Nebraska enacts a law codifying a process for approving the route
and directing the state’s Department of Environmental Quality to
cooperate with the state in moving it forward.<br />
2011- Dec.-The House and Senate unanimously approve and Obama signs the payroll
tax bill, which requires the president to approve or deny the Keystone
permit within 60 days.<br />
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>China goes "green."</b> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">2011-China begins shift to a “green economy.” China says its 12th Five Year Plan for economic </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">development
is based on sustainable development goals, including substantial
reductions in pollution and carbon and energy intensities. The plan is
backed by nearly half a trillion USD in proposed expenditures for
environmental protection</span></span></div>
<br />
<b>The Japanese Sunami</b><br />
<br />
2011- Nov 3- Earthquake and Sunami kills over 5,000, washing away populated areas of the Pacific shoreline<b> </b>and seriously damaging the Fukushima nuclear power plant causing extreme damage from radiation.<br />
2012- Jan- Brazil- Floods and mudslides caused by torrential rains killed more than 30 in
the states of Minas and Rio de Janeiro. Thousands more were dislocated.
The storms came during the traditionally rainy month of January; more
than 800 people died in flooding a year earlier. <br />
2012- Jan 18- President Obama announces he will not approve the construction of the
<b>Keystone XL</b> pipeline in its current form but will allow TransCanada to
re-apply.<br />
2012- Alaska-<b> </b>Jan. 9:
<b> </b>Massive piles of snow collapsed roofs and trapped some people in homes
in the Alaskan fishing town of Cordova. By one count, more than three
metres of snow fell in the town of 2,000 people over the course of a few
weeks. Members of the Alaska National Guard were called on to help<br />
2012- February- A deep freeze gripped much of Europe from late January well into
February. Temperatures dipped below -40C in some places. More than 650
people died, many of them homeless people in Russia, Poland and Ukraine.
Rome also saw its heaviest snowfall in 25 years<br />
<br />
<b>Keystone Pipeline.</b> <br />
2012- Feb 27- TransCanada announces it is dividing the <b>Keystone XL</b> project into two
parts and will proceed with the Gulf Coast Project from Cushing,
Oklahoma, which doesn’t cross an international border and it has its own
utility; therefore, it does not require a Presidential Permit.<br />
21012- March- President Obama publicly stated that the Gulf Coast Project from Cushing
Oklahoma has presidential support and he will expedite the permitting. <br />
2012- March- A mild, dry winter prompted the Alberta government to start the
wildfire season a full month earlier than usual. The season would be
long and disastrous, as several fires flared up across the Canadian and
U.S. West. The U.S. endured a near-record amount of destruction, as nine
million acres (an area roughly the size of Massachusetts and
Connecticut) burned <br />
2012- March- Australia- Days of torrential rain soaked eastern
Australia, causing more than $500 million in damage across three states.
Cresting flood waters near the town of Wagga Wagga in New South Wales
forced millions of spiders to flee their natural habitat, creating some
spectacular (and eerie) imagery.<br />
2012- May 4- TransCanada submits a Presidential Permit application for the <b>Keystone
XL Pipeline</b> from the U.S.–Canada border in Montana to Steele City,
Nebraska. TransCanada will supplement that application with an
alternative route in Nebraska as soon as that route is selected.<br />
2012- July-TransCanada is working collaboratively with the State of Nebraska and
the Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality to reroute the
contentious segment of the <b>Keystone XL pipeline</b> around the Sandhills. The U.S. Department of State reiterated statements that it expects
to make a decision on a Presidential Permit for Keystone XL by the first
quarter of 2013.<br />
<br />
<b>Weather Disasters and Climate Change.</b> <br />
2012-
Dr. Kevin Trenberth explains in a 2012 paper "Framing the way to relate
climate extremes to climate change": "Scientists are frequently asked
about an event "Is it caused by climate
change?" The answer is that no events are "caused by climate change" or
global warming, but all events have a contribution. Moreover, a small
shift in the mean can still lead to very large percentage changes in
extremes. In reality the wrong question is being asked: the question is
poorly posed and has no satisfactory answer. The answer is that all
weather events are affected by climate change because the environment in
which they occur is warmer and moister than it used to be."<br />
<br />
<b>China Leads on Sales of Energy Technology</b><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">2012- Trade disputes on solar and wind energy products. China’s expanded manufacturing </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">capacity
and low prices make it a leader in global trade on wind turbines. The
U.S. contests both solar and wind subsidies in China as unfair trade
practices. The outcomes of these disputes may influence the future of
clean techenergy sourcing and adoption. </span></span></div>
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<div data-canvas-width="552.6080376434327" data-font-name="g_font_p0_11" dir="ltr" style="left: 145.325px; top: 482.132px; transform-origin: 0% 0% 0px; transform: scale(0.925642, 1);">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">2012-
One of the first of the Millennium Development Goal targets is achieved
in advance of the 2015 deadline: the percentage of the world’s people
without access to safe drinking water is cut in half. </span></span></div>
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<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Hurricane Sandy.</b> </span></span></div>
2012-
Oct 24-29- Hurricane Sandy, a high, category 3 storm, slams into the
Caribbean and the US coast at New Jersey and England, destroying much
shoreline development and almost 300.</div>
2013- May-June- gigantic Tornados hit the US in Oklahoma , destroying hundreds of buildings and killing a dozen.<br />
2013- June- massive flooding kills 600 in India and 3 in Alberta, Canada.<br />
2013- June- forest fores kill a crew of 19 elite firefighters in Arizona. <br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>The Future</b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
-”The
mid-range scenarios employed in IPCC projections for the end of the
next century would result in global mean surface temperatures that
exceed any well-documented warming in the last million years.” -Thomas
J. Crowley, REMEMBRANCE OF THINGS PAST: GREENHOUSE LESSONS FROM THE
GEOLOGIC RECORD.</div>
2400-2700
AD- “the geologic record yields the rather startling conclusion that
the climate could be comparable to that experienced during the Age of
Dinosaurs, which was as warm as any time in the last billion years.”
-Thomas J. Crowley, REMEMBRANCE OF THINGS PAST: GREENHOUSE LESSONS FROM
THE GEOLOGIC RECORD.</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-8136585209626334142013-08-25T09:23:00.000-07:002013-08-25T09:23:07.838-07:00Saturday's 50 Year Commemoration at Lincoln Memorial of Martin Luther King's March on Washington<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<b>IN MEMORY OF DR. KING'S MARCH ON WASHINGTON, A TIMELINE OF BLACK HISTORY IN AMERICA.</b><br />
<br />
<b>SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE.</b><br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="sjN0nhYCeJ-pMM:" 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" style="height: 199px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -7px; width: 253px;" /><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">17th-18th centuries - Hundreds of thousands of Africans brought over and sold into slavery to work on<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">cotton and tobacco plantations. </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>619 - Dutch <span style="font-size: small;">de<span style="font-size: small;">liver the fist sla<span style="font-size: small;">ves to Virginia<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1652
- Rhode Island enacts the first law in the colonies declaring slavery
illegal.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1664
- Maryland passes a law making lifelong servitude for black slaves
mandatory to prevent them from taking advantage of legal precedents
established in England which grant freedom under certain conditions,
such as conversion to Christianity. Similar laws are later passed in New
York, New Jersey, the Carolinas and Virginia.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1672
- The Royal Africa Company is given a monopoly in the English slave
trade.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1688
- Quakers in Pennsylvania issue a formal protest against slavery in
America.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1696
- The Royal African Trade Company loses its slave trade monopoly,
spurring colonists in New England to engage in slave trading for profit.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1712- </span></span> June<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span> the Pennsylvania assembly bans the
import of slaves into that colony. </span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1716
- The first group of black slaves is brought to the Louisiana territory.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1739<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> three separate violent uprisings by black slaves occur in South
Carolina.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1740
- Fifty black slaves are hanged in Charleston, South Carolina, after plans
for another revolt are revealed</span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1799- March 29- A law is passed to abolish slavery in the state of New
York, effective twenty-eight year later, in 1827. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<b>1807</b>- Congress passes an act that prohibits the importation
of slaves into any port within the confines of the<br />
United States from
any foreign land.<br />
<b>1808</b> - Atlantic slave trade abolished<br />
-Presidency of James Monroe (1817-25) 1820- March 3- The Missouri Compromise bill, sponsored by Henry Clay,
is passed in the United States Congress. This legislation
allows
slavery in the Missouri territory, but not in any other location west
of the Misssissippi River that was north of 36 degrees 30 minutes
latitude, the current southern line of the state of Missouri.
The
state of Missouri would be admitted to the Union, under this
compromise, on August 10, 18.<br />
<br />
1831-August 21- A local slave rebellion in Southampton County,
Virginia, led by Nat Turner, a black slave,killed fifty-seven white
citizens. Turner would be captured on October 30 of the same
year, tried, and hanged on November 11 for his part in the uprising.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSbRCrU61Ib6OPzIUvVf76ay7Doxg0dO6hNzyZVJK0YApHf_xVR" data-sz="f" name="RI_Ghlzg3P8DFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSbRCrU61Ib6OPzIUvVf76ay7Doxg0dO6hNzyZVJK0YApHf_xVR" style="height: 183px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 196px;" /> </div>
<br />
1838- September 3- Frederick Douglass, future
abolitionist, boards a train in Maryland to freedom from slavery, with
borrowed identification and a sailor's uniform from a free Black seaman<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">.</span></span><b> </b><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1852- </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Mar. 20: Harriet BeecherStowe publishes <i>Uncle Tom's Cabin</i>, which sells 300,000 copies in a year </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">and a million copies in 16 months.<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>When Stowe met President Lincoln at the White House, he reportedly asked her: "Is this the little woman whose book made such a great
war?"</span> </span></span></pre>
<br />
P<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">residency of</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Franklin Pierce, 1853-1857</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1854 - Opponents of slavery, or abolitionists, set up Republican Party.</span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Republican party grew out of the conflicts regarding the
expansion of slavery into the new Western territories. The stimulus for
its founding was provided by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of
1854. That law repealed earlier compromises that had excluded slavery
from the territories. The passage of this act served as the unifying
agent for abolitionists and split the Democrats and the Whig party.
"Anti-Nebraska" protest meetings spread rapidly through the country. Two
such meetings were held in Ripon, Wis., on Feb. 28 and Mar. 20, 1854,
and were attended by a group of abolitionist Free Soilers, Democrats,
and Whigs. They decided to call themselves Republicans-because they
professed to be political descendants of Thomas Jefferson's
Democratic-Republican party. The name was formally adopted by a state
convention held in Jackson, Mich., on July 6, 1854.</span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1855 - Free Soilers establish government banning slavery and blacks from Kansas;</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1857 - Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision that a slave did not become free when </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">transported into a<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>free state. It also ruled that slavery could not be banned by </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">the U.S. Congress in a territory, and that blacks were not eligible to be
awarded citizenship.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="bzT0KASq8slsfM:" 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" style="height: 189px; margin-left: -3px; margin-top: 0px; width: 165px;" /> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Dred Scott</span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1858- June 23,- With strife between pro-slavery and anti-slavery
partisans escalating to dramatic chaos, the 2nd Infantry and 3rd
Artillery regiments under the command of Captain Nathanial Lyon attempt
to restore order during the "Bleeding Kansas" campaign.</span></span> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Civil War. </span></span></span></pre>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1860-61
- Eleven pro-slavery southern states secede from Union and form
Confederate States of America under leadership of Jefferson Davis,
triggering civil war with abolitionist northern states.</span><br />
1863 - Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation, declaring slaves in Confederate states to be free.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">March – Conscription enacted </span></span></span></div>
<br />
1865- December 18- The 13th Amendment abolishing slavery is added to the Constitution.<br />
1866-
Jun 16 - The 14th Amendment declaring all persons born on American
soil, to be citizens (including blacks) is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<b> RACE RELATIONS.</b><br />
<b><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="KtJQi0ovPdgMrM:" 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style="height: 185px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 247px;" /> </b><br />
<br />
1875- March 1 - The Civil Rights Act, giving equal
rights to blacks in jury duty and accommodation is passed by the United
States Congress. <br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1870s-1920s- epidemic of white mob lynchings of blacks, mostly in the American South.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1883- </span><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">Civil Rights Act</span> overturned in 1883 by the U.S.
Supreme Court<span style="font-size: small;"> with ad<span style="font-size: small;">verse effe<span style="font-size: small;">cts for black Americans.</span></span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1909- May 30- The National Conference of the Negro is conducted,
leading to the formation of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People, (NAACP). </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">-Jim <span style="font-size: small;">C</span>rowe laws rein<span style="font-size: small;">force segregation throughout the South.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1937- March 26- William Henry Hastie is appointed to the federal
bench, becoming the first African-American to become a federal judge. </span></pre>
1943- June 21- Race riots in Detroit and Harlem cause forty deaths and
seven hundred injuries. <br />
1948- July 26- Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the United
States military in signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman.<br />
1967 July - Black riots plague U.S. cities. In Newark, New
Jersey, twenty-six are killed, fifteen hundred injured and one thousand
arrested from July 12 to 17. One week later, July 23 to 30,
forty
are killed, two thousand injured, and five thousand left homeless after
rioting in Detroit, known as the 12th Street Riots, decimate a black
ghetto. The riots are eventually stopped by over 12,500
Federal
troopers and National Guardsmen. <br />
1968 - April 4, Black civil rights leader Martin Luther King assassinated. Blacks riot throughout eastern US.<br />
1986- January 20- Martin Luther King Day is officially observed for the first time
as a federal holiday in the United States. <br />
<br />
<b> </b><br />
<b>CIVIL RIGHTS.</b><br />
<br />
<b><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="I7wVjf4kn6dWsM:" 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" style="height: 171px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 255px;" /> </b><br />
<br />
1791 - Bill of Rights guarantees individual freedom.<br />
1865- December 18- The 13th Amendment abolishing slavery is added to the Constitution.<br />
1866-
Jun 16 - The 14th Amendment declaring all persons born on American
soil, to be citizens (including blacks) is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1870 - 15<sup>th</sup> Amendment Ratified, giving Blacks but not women the right to vote.</span> </span></span></pre>
1875- March 1 - The Civil Rights Act, giving equal
rights to blacks in jury duty and accommodation is passed by the United
States Congress. It would be overturned in 1883 by the U.S.
Supreme Court.<br />
<br />
<br />
1896- May 18- Plessy
versus Ferguson decision by the Supreme Court states that racial
segregation is approved under the "separate but equal" doctrine.<br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1909- May 30- The National Conference of the Negro is conducted,<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>leading to the formation of the </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">National Association for the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Advancement of Colored People, (NAACP). </span></span></pre>
federal relief.<br />
-through the 'Jim Crow Laws' racial segregation is kept legal in the Southern United States. <br />
<pre></pre>
<br />
1937- March 26- William Henry Hastie is appointed to the federal
bench, becoming the first African-American to become a federal judge.<br />
1948- July 26- Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the United
States military in signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman.<br />
1954
- Racial segregation in schools becomes unconstitutional; start of
campaign of civil disobedience to secure civil rights for Americans of
African descent.<br />
1955- December 1- Rosa Parks, an African American seamstress, refuses
to give up her seat on the bus to a white man, prompting the boycott
and NAACP protect that would lead to the declaration that bus
segregation laws were unconstitutional by a federal court.<br />
<br />
1956- March 12-
One hundred and one congressmen from Southern states call for massive
resistance to the Supreme Court ruling on desegregation.<br />
1957- April 29- U.S. Congress approves the first civil rights bill
since reconstruction with additional protection of voting rights.<br />
<br />
1963- August 28- The Civil Rights march on Washington DC for Jobs
and Freedom culminates with Dr. Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a
Dream" speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Over
200,000 people participated in the march for equal rights. A
monument is now planned on the National Mall to commemorate Dr. King,
the speech, and his impact on Civil Rights.<br />
1964- June 29- An omnibus legislation in the U.S. Congress on Civil
Rights is passed. It banned discrimination in jobs, voting
and
accommodations. <br />
1965- August 6 - The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is signed into law by
President Lyndon B. Johnson. Two significant portions of the
act;
the outlawing of the requirement of potential voters to take a literacy
test in order to qualify and the provision of federal registration of
voters in areas with less than 50% of all voters registered.<br />
2013- The 'not guilty verdict' in the shooting of an unarmed black man, Trayvon Martin by neighbourhood watch volunteer George Zimmerman suggest that most young black men in the united states remain guilty until proven innocent.<br />
</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-86784570075390334442013-08-25T09:18:00.005-07:002013-08-25T09:24:25.321-07:00Timetable of US History According to Subject<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
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<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Timetable of US History According to Subject </span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="3RfByYgFsykm8M:" 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" 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<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">SCROLL DOWN FOR: </span></span></span></span><br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>EXPLORATION, SETTLEMENT, EXPANSION, IMMIGRATION. </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>SLAVES AND THE SLAVE TRADE.</b></i><br />
<i><b>FRANCE IN AMERICA.</b></i><br />
<i><b>RELIGION IN AMERICA.</b></i><br />
<i><b><b>RELATIONS BETWEEN CROWN AND COLONIES</b> </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</b></i><br />
<i><b>ELECTIONS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>POLITICAL PARTIES</b></i><br />
<i><b>THE WAR OF 1812,</b></i><br />
<i><b>STATE-FEDERAL RELATIONS. </b></i><br />
<i><b>THE CIVIL WAR.</b></i><br />
<i><b><b>CRIME, OUTLAWRY, LAW ENFORCEMENT.</b> </b></i><br />
<i><b><b>NATIVE AMERICANS</b> </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>ASSASSINATIONS</b></i><br />
<i><b>LATIN AMERICAN RELATIONS.</b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>LEARNING, INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY</b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>RACE RELATIONS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>CIVIL RIGHTS, WOMEN AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION</b></i><br />
<i><b>WORLD WAR ONE.</b></i><br />
<i><b>THE MIDDLE EAST. </b></i><br />
<i><b> SCANDALS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>DRUGS AND ALCOHOL.</b></i><br />
<i><b><b>THE ECONOMY, TRADE AND WEALTH.</b> </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>WORLD WAR TWO. </b></i><br />
<i><b>RACE RELATIONS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>THE COLD WAR.</b></i><br />
<i><b>PROTESTS.</b></i><br />
<i><b>TERRORISM </b></i><br />
<i><b>THE ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL DISASTERS.</b></i><br />
<br />
<br />
<i>HISTORY IN THE NEWS would like to thank the following sources:</i><br />
<br />
<br />
<i>
</i><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.shgresources.com/us/timeline/</span></i></div>
<i>
</i><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1840.html</span></i></div>
<i>
</i>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><a href="http://www.history.com/topics/the-us-presidents"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.history.com/topics/the-us-presidents</span></a></i></div>
<i>
</i>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://faculty.washington.edu/qtaylor/a_us_history/1800_1900_timeline.htm</span></i></div>
<i>
</i><br />
<br />
<b>EXPLORATION, SETTLEMENT, EXPANSION, IMMIGRATION. </b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1492 - - -Columbus makes the first
of four voyages to the New World, funded by the Spanish Crown, seeking a western
sea route to Asia. On October 12, sailing the Santa Maria, he lands in the
Bahamas, thinking it is an outlying Japanese island.</span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1499 -
Italian navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, sights the coast of South America during a
voyage of discovery for Spain. </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1507 -
The name "America" is first used in a geography book referring to the New World
with Amerigo Vespucci getting credit for the discovery of the continent.</span></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
1508 - Spanish Invade Puerto Rico </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
1513 - Ponce de Leon lands in Florida </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
1516 - Smallpox introduced in New World</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1524 -
Giovanni da Verrazano, sponsored by France, lands in the area around the
Carolinas, then sails north and discovers the Hudson River, and continues
northward into Narragansett Bay and Nova Scotia.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1663
- King Charles II establishes the colony of Carolina and grants the
territory to eight loyal supporters.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1681
- Pennsylvania is founded as William Penn, a Quaker, receives a Royal
charter with a large land grant from King Charles II.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1682
- French explorer La Salle explores the lower Mississippi Valley region
and claims it for France, naming the area Louisiana for King Louis XIV.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1682
- A large wave of immigrants, including many Quakers, arrives in
Pennsylvania from Germany and the British Isles. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1685
- Protestants in France lose their guarantee of religious freedom as
King Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes, spurring many to leave for
America.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1730
- Baltimore is founded in the Maryland colony.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">St. Augustine Roanoke, DeSoto</span></span><span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>539 - <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>eSoto and <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>e Coronado mount expeditions </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: red;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1541- Hernando <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>e Soto of Spain discovers the Mississippi River </span></span></span><b><b> </b></b><br />
1565 <b>- </b>First permanent European settlement in North America - St
Augustine, present-day Florida - founded by the Spanish. North America
is already inhabited by several distinct groups of people, who go into
decline following the arrival of settlers.<br />
1584<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal;">
-
</span>Raleigh’s
Roanoke Island Va. Colony<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="yQf2dSnnKpE9BM:" 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" style="height: 182px; margin-left: -12px; margin-top: 0px; width: 253px;" /> <br />
<br />
Roanoke Colony.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1590 - Roanoke found abandoned </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<b> </b></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1607 - Jamestown, Virginia, founded by English settlers, who begin growing tobacco</span></span><br />
<br />
The Dutch.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1613 -
A Dutch trading post is set up on lower Manhattan Island. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>619 - Dutch <span style="font-size: small;">de<span style="font-size: small;">liver the fist sla<span style="font-size: small;">ves to Virginia<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1664
- The Dutch New Netherlands colony becomes English New York after Gov.
Peter Stuyvesant surrenders to the British following a naval blockade.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1673
- Dutch military forces retake New York from the British.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1674
- The Treaty of Westminster ends hostilities between the English and
Dutch and returns Dutch colonies in America to the English.<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Pilgrims and Puritans.</span><br /> </span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1620</b>
- Plymouth Colony, near Cape Cod, is founded by the Pilgrim Fathers,
whose example is followed by other English Puritans in New England. </span></span> </span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1620’s - Puritans settle in Massachusetts</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1630
- In March, John Winthrop leads a Puritan migration of 900
colonists to Massachusetts </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Bay,where he will serve as the first
governor. In September, Boston is officially established and </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">serves as
the site of Winthrop's government.</span> </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1636 - H<span style="font-size: small;">arvard fou<span style="font-size: small;">nded</span></span> - In June, Roger Williams founds Providence and Rhode
Island. Williams</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">had been banished from Massachusetts for "new and
dangerous opinions" calling for religious and </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">political freedoms,
including separation of church and state, not granted under the Puritan
rules.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Providence then becomes a haven for many other colonists fleeing
religious intolerance. </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1638-<span style="color: windowtext;">- Anne Hutchinson is banished from Massachusetts for
nonconformist religious views that </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">advocate personal revelation over the
role of the clergy. She then travels with her family to </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Rhode Island</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">The Tr<span style="font-size: small;">eaty of Paris, 1863.</span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The French and Indian War, known in Europe as the Seven Year's War, ends
with the Treaty of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Paris. Under the treaty, France gives England all French
territory east of the Mississippi River, except New </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Orleans. The Spanish
give up east and west Florida to the English in return for Cuba.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits
any English settlement west of the Appalachian mountains and requires those
already settled in those regions to return east<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="fTyYEJhz2OqktM:" 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" style="height: 200px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 137px;" /><br />
<br />
<b>1803</b> -April 2- France sells Louisiana territories to USA. President Thomas Jefferson doubles the size of the
United States of America with his purchase of the Louisiana Territory
from Napoleon's France, thus paving way for the western expansion that
would mark the entire history of the 19th century from Missouri to the
Pacific Coast. The price of the purchase included bonds of
$11,250,000 and $3.750,000 in payments to United States citizens with
claims against France.<br />
<b>1804-</b> October 26- The Lewis and Clark Expedition arrives at the
confluence of the Knife and Missouri Rivers, in what is now the state
of North Dakota, where they camped until the spring of 1805 at the
hospitality of the Mandan and Minitari Indian villages.<br />
<b>1806</b>- The National Road, also known as the Great National Pike or the
Cumberland Road, the first federally funded highway that ran between
Cumberland, Maryland to Ohio, was approved by President Thomas
Jefferson on March 29, 1806, with the signing of legislation and
appropriation of $30,000. The highway ran through three
states,
including Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.<br />
<br />
1823- Dec. 2- Monroe Doctrine - In a speech before Congress, James Monroe announces
the Monroe Doctrine, stating the policy that European
intervention anyplace is the Americas is opposed and that he would
establish American neutrality in future European wars.<br />
<b>19th century</b> - Residual resistance by indigenous people
crushed as immigration from Europe assumes mass proportions, with
settlers moving westwards and claiming "manifest destiny" to control
North America; number of states in the union rises from 17 to 45.<br />
1835-October 2- The Revolution of Texas begins with the Battle of
Gonzales when Mexican soldiers try to disarm the people of Gonzales,
but are resisted by local militia. On November 2-4, 1835 -
Texas
proclaimed the right to secede from Mexico with Sam Houston taking
command of the Texas army. His Texas army would capture San Antonio on December 9.<br />
<br />
1836-February 23-March 6 - The Battle For the Alamo is waged in San
Antonio, Texas when 3,000 Mexican troops under Santa Ana attack the
mission and its 189 defenders. (Picture of Alamo memorial
above)
Texas troops lose the battle after a thirteen day
siege. On
March 2, 1836, Texas independence was declared at a convention of
delegates from fifty-seven Texas communities at
Washington-on-the-Brazos, making them an independent nation free from
Mexican rule.<br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Presidency of John Tyler, 1841-1845</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></pre>
1842-May 16- The first organized wagon train on the Oregon Trail leaves with more than one hundred pioneers from Elm
Grove, Missouri. Although not welcomed due to company policy
that discouraged emigration, they were offered food and farming
equipment at Fort Vancouver by the Hudson Bay Company upon arrival.
(Photo top right) Independence Rock on the
Oregon Trail. First mentioned by Parker in .<b> </b><br />
<pre><b>11. James Knox Polk, 1845-1849</b></pre>
<big> </big><br />
<big>1845- </big>
December 2- U.S. President Polk invokes the concept of Manifest
Destiny, announcing to Congress that the Monroe Doctrine should be
strictly enforced and that the setlement of the West should be
aggressively pursued.<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1867- March 30- </span><b> </b>The United States purchases the Alaska Territory from Russia for $7.2 million. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1867- </span>Aug. 28- The U.S. annexes the Midway Islands.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
The Mexican War <br />
<br />
<b>1846-48</b>
- US acquires vast tracts of Mexican territory in wake of Mexican War
including California and New Mexico. 1846-May 8, 1846 - The first
conflict of the Mexican War occurs north of the
Rio Grande River at Palo Alto, Texas when United States troops under
the command of Major General Zachary Taylor rout a larger Mexican
force. Zachary had been ordered by President Polk to sieze
disputed Texas land settled by Mexicans.<br />
<br />
1846- May 13- War is declared by the United States against Mexico,
backed by southerners while northern Whigs were in
opposition. Ten days later, Mexico declares war back.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQuwl6xg5yjecemY00zrAZLEO7f2K5ZLyUxyQTdgFtAVUVWl2n3" data-sz="f" name="HkCa_DcGlDAmiM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQuwl6xg5yjecemY00zrAZLEO7f2K5ZLyUxyQTdgFtAVUVWl2n3" style="height: 182px; margin-left: -15px; margin-top: 0px; width: 276px;" /> <br />
<br />
1847-September 8-15- The Battle for Mexico City is fought, beginning
two miles outside the city at King's Mill. The main assault
against the fortress Capultepec came on September 12 under the command
of General Winfield Scott, with combatants including Ulysses S. Grant
and John Quitman's 4th Division, of which George Pickett and James
Longstreet were a part. Quitman's division entered a deserted
city, which had been abandoned by Santa Anna's forces during the night,
on September 15.<br />
1848-January 24- Gold was discovered in California by James W.
Marshall at Sutter's Mill in the town of Colona.
Seven months later, on August 19, the New York Herald breaks the news
of the gold rush to East Coast readers, prompting eighty thousand
prospectors to flood California and the Barbary Coast of San Francisco
in 1849. Picture below, Riverside gold mine with streambed
sluice, probably located in the California's Sierra Nevada mining
district. Date unknown.<br />
1848- February 2- The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican
War with Mexico relinquishing its rights to Texas above the Rio Grande
River and ceding New Mexico and California to the United
States. The United States also gained claims to Arizona,
Nevada, Utah, and part of Colorado. In exchange, the United
States assumed $3 million in American claims and paid Mexico $15
million. The treaty is ratified one month later on March 10
by the U.S. Senate. Mexico would ratify the treaty on May 19.<br />
<br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">Presidency of </span>Zachary Taylor, 1849-1850</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>849- 80,000 people migrate to California; about 55,000 overland and 25,000 by sea. Only about </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">700 are women. </span></pre>
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1853- </span><span style="font-size: small;">December 30- The Gadsden Purchase is consummated, with the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>United States buying </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">a 29,640 square mile tract of land in present-day<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Arizona and New Mexico (approximately from </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Yuma to Las Cruces) for $10<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>million from Mexico to allow railroad building in the southwest and
settle continued border disputes after the Mexican-American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>War. This act finalized the </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">borders of the Continental United States.</span></span></pre>
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1855- </span>April
21- The first railroad train crosses the Mississippi River on the first
bridge constructed at Rock Island, Illinois to Davenport,
Iowa</span>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSz34IiVoR-4P_USoyk3k4f_fh2ZOGG5T5hFdFmYQlYdO8R7C6t" data-sz="f" name="z2ZwbPJ0eRY1aM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSz34IiVoR-4P_USoyk3k4f_fh2ZOGG5T5hFdFmYQlYdO8R7C6t" style="height: 182px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -3px; width: 277px;" /><br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1869- May 10 <b>- </b>The Transcontinental Railroad is completed at Promontory Point, Utah.</span></span></pre>
-As the 19th Century came to a close, the American electorate changed
more and more rapidly. The Democratic Party embraced the immigrants who
flooded into cities and industrial centers, built a political base by
bringing them into the American mainstream, and helped create the most
powerful economic engine in history <br />
1892- January 1-Ellis Island in New York Harbor, opens as the main east coast immigration center,
and would remain the initial debarkation point for European immigrants
into the United States until its closure.<br />
1893 September 16 - The 4th of five land runs in Oklahoma's dash,
known as the Oklahoma Land Race or
the Cherokee Strip Land Run, opened seven million acres of the
Cherokee Strip. It was purchased from the Indian tribe for
$7,000,000. Nearly 100,000 people gathered around the 42,000
claims that were available to the first person, with a certificate, to
stake a claim.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>898- </span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">April 22, 1898 - The blockade of Cuba begins when the United States<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Navy aids independence forces</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> within Cuba. Several days<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>later,<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>the U.S.A. declares war on Spain, backdating its declaration to April
20. On May 1, 1898, the United States Navy destroyed the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Spanish<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>fleet in the Philippines. On June 20, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">the U.S. would take<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Guam.
May 12, 1898 - San Juan, Puerto Rico is bombed by the American navy<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>under the command of Rear Admiral</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">William T. Sampson. Puerto<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Rico<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>is overtaken by the United States between July 25 with its landing at<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Guanica Bay and August 12. These acts during the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Spanish-American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>War would ultimately result in Spain </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">deciding in December to cede<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>lands, including Puerto Rico, to the United</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> States. </span></span></pre>
<b>1898</b> - US gains Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines and Cuba following the Spanish-American war. US annexes Hawaii.<br />
1901- March 2 - The Platt amendment is passed by the United States
Congress, which limited the autonomy of Cuba as a condition for
American troop withdrawal. Cuba would become a U.S.
protectorate on June 12.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1921- May 19- A national quota system on the amount of incoming immigrants was
established by the United States Congress in the Emergency Quota Act,
curbing legal immigration.</span></span></pre>
1988- May 4- The deadline for amnesty application by illegal aliens is
met by 1.4 million, who apply. It is estimated that 71% of
those
who applied had entered the United States from Mexico.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>2006</b> April-May - Millions of immigrants and their supporters take to the streets to
protest against plans to criminali<span style="font-size: small;">z</span>e illegal immigrants.</span></span></pre>
<br />
<br />
<b>SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">17th-18th centuries - Hundreds of thousands of Africans brought over and sold into slavery to work on<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">cotton and tobacco plantations. </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>619 - Dutch <span style="font-size: small;">de<span style="font-size: small;">liver the fist sla<span style="font-size: small;">ves to Virginia<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1652
- Rhode Island enacts the first law in the colonies declaring slavery
illegal.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1664
- Maryland passes a law making lifelong servitude for black slaves
mandatory to prevent them from taking advantage of legal precedents
established in England which grant freedom under certain conditions,
such as conversion to Christianity. Similar laws are later passed in New
York, New Jersey, the Carolinas and Virginia.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1672
- The Royal Africa Company is given a monopoly in the English slave
trade.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1688
- Quakers in Pennsylvania issue a formal protest against slavery in
America.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1696
- The Royal African Trade Company loses its slave trade monopoly,
spurring colonists in New England to engage in slave trading for profit.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1712- </span></span> June<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span> the Pennsylvania assembly bans the
import of slaves into that colony. </span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1716
- The first group of black slaves is brought to the Louisiana territory.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1739<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> three separate violent uprisings by black slaves occur in South
Carolina.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1740
- Fifty black slaves are hanged in Charleston, South Carolina, after plans
for another revolt are revealed</span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1799- March 29- A law is passed to abolish slavery in the state of New
York, effective twenty-eight year later, in 1827. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<b>1807</b>- Congress passes an act that prohibits the importation
of slaves into any port within the confines of the<br />
United States from
any foreign land.<br />
<b>1808</b> - Atlantic slave trade abolished<br />
-Presidency of James Monroe (1817-25) 1820- March 3- The Missouri Compromise bill, sponsored by<br />
Henry Clay,
is passed in the United States Congress. This legislation
allows
slavery in the Missouri territory,<br />
but not in any other location west
of the Misssissippi River that was north of 36 degrees 30 minutes
latitude,<br />
the current southern line of the state of Missouri.
The
state of Missouri would be admitted to the Union,<br />
<br />
under this
compromise, on August 10, 18.<br />
<br />
1831-August 21- A local slave rebellion in Southampton County,
Virginia, led by Nat Turner, a black slave,<br />
killed fifty-seven white
citizens. Turner would be captured on October 30 of the same
year, tried, and<br />
hanged on November 11 for his part in the uprising.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSbRCrU61Ib6OPzIUvVf76ay7Doxg0dO6hNzyZVJK0YApHf_xVR" data-sz="f" name="RI_Ghlzg3P8DFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSbRCrU61Ib6OPzIUvVf76ay7Doxg0dO6hNzyZVJK0YApHf_xVR" style="height: 183px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 196px;" /> </div>
<br />
1838- September 3- Frederick Douglass, future
abolitionist, boards a train in Maryland to freedom from slavery, with
borrowed identification and a sailor's uniform from a free Black seaman<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">.</span></span><b> </b><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1852- </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Mar. 20: Harriet BeecherStowe publishes <i>Uncle Tom's Cabin</i>, which sells 300,000 copies in a year </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">and a million copies in 16 months.<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>When Stowe met President Lincoln at the White House, he reportedly asked her: "Is this the little woman whose book made such a great
war?"</span> </span></span></pre>
<br />
P<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">residency of</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Franklin Pierce, 1853-1857</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1854 - Opponents of slavery, or abolitionists, set up Republican Party.</span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Republican party grew out of the conflicts regarding the
expansion of slavery into the new Western territories. The stimulus for
its founding was provided by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of
1854. That law repealed earlier compromises that had excluded slavery
from the territories. The passage of this act served as the unifying
agent for abolitionists and split the Democrats and the Whig party.
"Anti-Nebraska" protest meetings spread rapidly through the country. Two
such meetings were held in Ripon, Wis., on Feb. 28 and Mar. 20, 1854,
and were attended by a group of abolitionist Free Soilers, Democrats,
and Whigs. They decided to call themselves Republicans-because they
professed to be political descendants of Thomas Jefferson's
Democratic-Republican party. The name was formally adopted by a state
convention held in Jackson, Mich., on July 6, 1854.</span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1855 - Free Soilers establish government banning slavery and blacks from Kansas;</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1857 - Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision that a slave did not become free when </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">transported into a<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>free state. It also ruled that slavery could not be banned by </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">the U.S. Congress in a territory, and that blacks were not eligible to be
awarded citizenship.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="bzT0KASq8slsfM:" 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" style="height: 189px; margin-left: -3px; margin-top: 0px; width: 165px;" /> </span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Dred Scott</span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1858- June 23,- With strife between pro-slavery and anti-slavery
partisans escalating to dramatic chaos, the 2nd Infantry and 3rd
Artillery regiments under the command of Captain Nathanial Lyon attempt
to restore order during the "Bleeding Kansas" campaign.</span></span> </span></span></span></pre>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1860-61
- Eleven pro-slavery southern states secede from Union and form
Confederate States of America under leadership of Jefferson Davis,
triggering civil war with abolitionist northern states.</span><br />
1865- December 18- The 13th Amendment abolishing slavery is added to the Constitution.<br />
1866-
Jun 16 - The 14th Amendment declaring all persons born on American
soil, to be citizens (including blacks) is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<b> FRANCE IN AMERICA.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1682
- French explorer La Salle explores the lower Mississippi Valley region
and claims it for France, naming the area Louisiana for King Louis XIV.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><b><br /></b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1690
- The beginning of King William's War as hostilities in Europe
between the French and English spill over to the colonies. In
February, Schenectady, New York is burned by the French with the aid of
their Native American allies.</span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1701
- In July, The French establish a settlement at Detroit. </span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1702
- In March, Queen Anne ascends the English throne. In May, England
declares war on France after the death of the King of Spain, Charles II,
to stop the union of France and Spain. This War of the Spanish
Succession is called Queen Anne's War in the colonies, where the English
and American colonists will battle the French, their Native American
allies, and the Spanish for the next eleven years.</span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1713
- Queen Anne's War ends with the Treaty of Utrecht.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1718
- New Orleans is founded by the French.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1740<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> in Europe, the War of the
Austrian Succession begins after the death of Emperor Charles VI and
eventually results in France and Spain allied against England. The conflict
is known in the American colonies as King George's War and lasts until
1748.</span></span></span> </span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> 1754
- The French and Indian War erupts as a result of disputes over land in the
Ohio River Valley. In May, George Washington leads a small group of American
colonists to victory over the French, then builds Fort Necessity in the Ohio
territory. In July, after being attacked by numerically superior French
forces, Washington surrenders the fort and retreats.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1755
- In February, English General Edward Braddock arrives in Virginia with two
regiments of English </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">troops. Gen. Braddock assumes the post of commander in
chief of all English forces in America. In April, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Gen. Braddock and Lt. Col.
George Washington set out with nearly 2000 men to battle the French in the </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Ohio territory. In July, a force of about 900 French and Indians defeat
those English forces. Braddock is </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">mortally wounded. Massachusetts Governor
William Shirley then becomes the new commander in chief.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1756
- England declares war on France, as the French and Indian War in the
colonies now spreads to </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Europe.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1757
- In June, William Pitt becomes England's Secretary of State and escalates
the French and Indian War </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in the colonies by establishing a policy of
unlimited warfare. In July, Benjamin Franklin begins a five year stay </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in
London.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="tmeyf5iYO9SmVM:" 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" style="height: 180px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -2px; width: 280px;" /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1758
- In July, a devastating defeat occurs for English forces at Lake George,
New York, as nearly two </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">thousand men are lost during a frontal attack
against well entrenched French forces at Fort Ticonderoga. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">French losses are
377. In November, the French abandon Fort Duquesne in the Ohio territory.
Settlers then </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">rush into the territory to establish homes. Also in 1758, the
first Indian reservation in America is founded, in </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">New Jersey, on 3000
acres.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1759
- French Fort Niagara is captured by the English. Also in 1759, war erupts
between Cherokee </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Indians and southern colonists.</span> </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The French and Indian War, known in Europe as the Seven Year's War, ends
with the Treaty of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Paris. Under the treaty, France gives England all French
territory east of the Mississippi River, except New </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Orleans. The Spanish
give up east and west Florida to the English in return for Cuba.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>763
- In May, the Ottawa Native Americans under Chief Pontiac begin all-out
warfare against the British </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">west of Niagara, destroying several British
forts and conducting a siege against the British at Detroit. In </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">August,
Pontiac's forces are defeated by the British near Pittsburgh. The siege of
Detroit ends in November, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">but hostilities between the British and Chief
Pontiac continue for several years.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits
any English settlement west of the Appalachian mountains and requires those
already settled in those regions to return east in an attempt to ease
tensions with Native Americans.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1801-1809<span style="font-size: small;">- Thomas Jefferson is <span style="font-size: small;">president.</span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<b>1803</b> -April 2- France sells Louisiana territories to USA. President Thomas Jefferson doubles the size of the
United States of America with his purchase of the Louisiana Territory
from Napoleon's France, thus paving way for the western expansion that
would mark the entire history of the 19th century from Missouri to the
Pacific Coast. The price of the purchase included bonds of
$11,250,000 and $3.750,000 in payments to United States citizens with
claims against France.<br />
<br />
<b>RELIGION IN AMERICA.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>517-Martin Luther
launches the Protestant Reformation in Europe, bringing an end to the sole
authority of the Catholic Church, resulting in the growth of numerous Protestant
religious sects.</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1620
- Plymouth Colony, near Cape Cod, is founded by the Pilgrim Fathers,
whose example is followed by other English Puritans in New England. </span></span> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1620’s - Puritans settle in Massachusetts</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1630
- In March, John Winthrop leads a Puritan migration of 900
colonists to Massachusetts </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Bay,where he will serve as the first
governor. In September, Boston is officially established and </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">serves as
the site of Winthrop's government.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1646
- In Massachusetts, the general court approves a law that makes
religious heresy punishable by death.</span></span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1685
- Protestants in France lose their guarantee of religious freedom as
King Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes, spurring many to leave for
America.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1687
- In March, New England Royal Governor, Sir Edmund Andros, orders
Boston's Old South Meeting House to be converted into an Anglican
Church.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1692
- In May, hysteria grips the village of Salem, Massachusetts, as
witchcraft suspects are arrested and imprisoned. A special court is
then set up by the governor of Massachusetts. Between June and
September, 150 persons are accused, with 20 persons, including 14 women,
being executed. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1692-</span></span> October<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span> the hysteria subsides, remaining prisoners
are released and the special court is dissolved.</span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1700
- In June, Massachusetts passes a law ordering all Roman Catholic
priests to leave the colony within three months, upon penalty of life
imprisonment or execution. New York then passes a similar law.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1706- November<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">- </span></span>South
Carolina establishes the Anglican Church as its official church.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1734- </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">December<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> the Great
Awakening religious revival movement begins in Massachusetts. The movement
will last ten years and spread to all of the American colonies.</span></span></span><br />
1924- July 10- The Scopes Trial or "Monkey Trial" begins and would
later convict John T. Scopes of teaching Charles Darwin's evolutionary
theory at a Dayton, Tennessee high school, which violated Tennessee
law. He is fined $100 for the charge.<br />
<img height="384" id="irc_mi" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSWC5uEqWb17JZ9pkJCrmwQXfvQaqxdOlQL6uzhb6iqYvrAbdjt8A" style="margin-top: 5px;" width="480" /><br />
1993-
February 28- The fifty-one day Waco standoff begins when the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms attempt to arrest the Branch
Dividian leader David Koresh on federal arms violations. Four
agents and five members of the cult are killed in the raid.
The
siege would end on April 19 when a fire, started by the Davidians,
killed seventy-five members of the group, including the leader.<br />
<br />
<b><b>RELATIONS BETWEEN CROWN AND COLONIES</b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1215- The <span style="font-size: small;">Magna Carta </span>is adopted in England, guaranteeing
liberties to the English people, and proclaiming basic rights
and procedures which later become the foundation of modern
democracy. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1660
- The English Crown approves a Navigation Act requiring the exclusive
use of English ships for trade in the English Colonies and limits
exports of tobacco and sugar and other commodities to England or its
colonies</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1663
- Navigation Act of 1663 requires that most imports to the colonies must
be transported via England on English ships.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1673
- The British Navigation Act of 1673 sets up the office of customs
commissioner in the colonies to </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">collect duties on goods that pass
between plantations.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1686
- King James II begins consolidating the colonies of New England into
a single Dominion depriving colonists of their local political rights
and independence. Legislatures are dissolved and the King's
representatives assume all of the judicial and legislative power.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1687- August, the Massachusetts towns of Ipswich and Topsfield
resist assessments imposed by Gov. Andros in protest of taxation without
representation.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1688
- In March, Gov. Andros imposes a limit of one annual town meeting for
New England towns. The Governor then orders all militias to be placed
under his control.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1689
- In February, William and Mary of Orange become King and Queen of
England. <span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1689-</span></span> April, New England Governor Andros is jailed by
rebellious colonists in Boston. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1689- </span></span> July, the English government orders
Andros to be returned to England to stand trial.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1691
- In New York, the newly appointed Governor of New England, Henry
Sloughter, arrives from England and institutes royally sanctioned
representative government. In October, Massachusetts gets a new royal
charter which includes government by a royal governor and a governor's
council.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1696- April<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span> the Navigation Act of 1696 is passed by the English Parliament
requiring colonial trade to be done exclusively via English built ships.
The Act also expands the powers of colonial custom commissioners,
including rights of forcible entry, and requires the posting of bonds on
certain goods.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1699
- The English Parliament passes the Wool Act, protecting its own wool
industry by limiting wool </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">production in Ireland and forbidding the
export of wool from the American colonies.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1714
- Tea is introduced for the first time into the American Colonies</span></span></span> <br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1729 - Benjamin Franklin begins publishing The Pennsylvania Gazette, which eventually
becomes the most popular colonial newspaper.</span></span></span> <br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> 1734
- In November, New York newspaper publisher John Peter Zenger is arrested
and accused of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">seditious libel by the Governor. </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1735
- John Peter Zenger is brought to trial for seditious libel but is acquitted
after his lawyer successfully convinces the jury that truth is a defense
against libel.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1750
- The Iron Act is passed by the English Parliament, limiting the growth of
the iron industry in the </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">American colonies to protect the English Iron
industry.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1751
- The Currency Act is passed by the English Parliament, banning the issuing
of paper money by the New England colonies.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</b><br />
<br />
<b>1774</b> - Colonists form First Continental Congress as Britain closes down Boston harbour and deploys troops in Massachusetts.<br />
<b>1775</b> - American Revolution: George Washington leads colonist Continental Army to fight against British rule. <br />
<b>1776</b> 4 July - Thomas Jefferson's American Declaration of Independence endorsed by Congress; colonies declare independence.<br />
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" style="height: 192px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 256px;" /> <br />
<b>1781</b>
- Rebel states form loose confederation, codified in Articles of
Confederation, after defeating the British at the Battle of Yorktown.<br />
<b>1783</b> - Britain accepts loss of colonies by virtue of Treaty of Paris.<br />
<img height="214" id="irc_mi" src="http://192.204.19.100/museum/jefferson/images/NA-1783.jpg" style="margin-top: 37px;" width="200" /><br />
Treaty of Paris, 1783 <br />
<br />
<b>1787</b> - Founding Fathers draw up new constitution for United States of America. Constitution comes into effect in 1788.<br />
1789-1797- George Washington elected first president of USA. <br />
<br />
<b>ELECTIONS.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
-The election of John Quincy Adams in 1824 was highly contested and led
to a four-way split among Democratic-Republicans. A result of the split
was the emergence of<b> Andrew Jackson</b> as a national leader. The war hero,
generally considered -- along with Jefferson -- one of the founding
fathers of the Democratic Party, organized his supporters to a degree
unprecedented in American history. The Jacksonian Democrats created the
national convention process, the party platform.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1912- November 5, 1912 - In the first election of a Democratic candidate
since 1892, Woodrow Wilson overcame a three way race for the presidency
when former President Teddy Roosevelt donned the nomination of the
Progressive Party to tackle the election against Wilson and incumbant
President and Republican William Howard Taft. This split
caused the election of Wilson, who garnered 435 Electoral College votes to 88
for Roosevelt and only 8 for Taft.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> -The 17th Amendment would be passed on April 8,
which set the policy for direct election of U.S. Senators. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1932-November 8 - Democratic challenger Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats
incumbent President Hoover in the presidential election for his first of an unprecedented four</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> terms.<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> The landslide victory, 472 Electoral College votes to 59 for Hoover began the era of FDR that
would lead the nation through the vestiges of the Great Depression and
the ravages of World War II</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> </span><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="vBiNjfQa-ec9aM:" 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" style="height: 191px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 146px;" /></pre>
1944- November 6- The last campaign speech of Franklin D. Roosevelt,
seeking his fourth term in office, is broadcast from his Hyde Park, New
York home. Two days later, Roosevelt would gain that fourth
term
by a significant, but smaller margin than any of his previous
elections, especially in the popular vote where Dewey lost by only
three and one half million votes. The Electoral College
margin,
however, at 432 to 99, insured Roosevelt good footing in prosecution of
World War II.<br />
1960 - Democratic Party candidate John F Kennedy elected president, narrowly defeating his rival Richard Nixon.<br />
1964- November 3, 1964 - President Lyndon B. Johnson wins his first
presidential election with a victory over Barry M. Goldwater from
Arizona. Johnson extended the Democratic victory by former
running mate John F. Kennedy with a 486 to 52 thrashing of the
Republican candidate in the Electoral College and over 15 million
surplus in the popular vote. <br />
1994- November 8- The Republican revolution concludes with the midterm
elections when for the first time in forty years, the party gains
control of both the Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives.<br />
2000- November - Republican Party's George W Bush wins presidency. George W. Bush, son of the former President, and
Vice President Al Gore hold a virtual dead-heat for the presidency,
with a disputed vote in Florida holding off the naming of the winner of
the President Election until the Supreme Court of the United States
voted in favor of Bush on December 12. This ruling gave
Florida
to the Bush camp by a 527 vote majority, and a victory in the Electoral
College, 271-266, despite gaining less popular votes than
Gore.<br />
2008- August 29- John McCain chooses Sarah Palin, 1st term Governor of Alaska,
as his running mate, making the contest between Barack Obama
and himself, the first time a presidential election included both an
African-American candidate and a woman amongst the Presidential and
Vice Presidential nominees for president among the Democratic and
Republican tickets. <br />
<b>2008</b> November - Democratic Senator Barack Obama becomes the first black president of the United States.<br />
<br />
<b>POLITICAL PARTIES</b><br />
<br />
1792- Thomas Jefferson founded the Democratic Party in 1792 as a congressional
caucus to fight for the Bill of Rights and against the elitist
Federalist Party.<br />
<br />
1798- the "party of the common man" was officially named the Democratic-Republican Party <br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
1801 - March 4, Thomas Jefferson is inaugurated for his first term as
President of the United States, with Aaron Burr, his defeated opponent,
as Vice President, as was the rule at the time.<br />
-presidency of John Quincy Adams (1825-29)<br />
-The election of John Quincy Adams in 1824 was highly contested and led
to a four-way split among Democratic-Republicans. A result of the split
was the emergence of<b> Andrew Jackson</b> as a national leader. The war hero,
generally considered -- along with Jefferson -- one of the founding
fathers of the Democratic Party, organized his supporters to a degree
unprecedented in American history. The Jacksonian Democrats created the
national convention process, the party platform.<br />
1828-November- After a tumultuous four years of national politics saw
the formation of the Democratic party behind Andrew Jackson and the
supporters of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay as the National
Republicans, The election for president sees a popular and electoral
college vote victory of 178-83 for Andrew Jackson over President John
Quincy Adams.<br />
<br />
<img align="middle" alt="" border="0" class="th imgthumb12" height="186" name="imgthumb12" 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<br />
-The Jacksonian Democrats created the national convention process, the
party platform, and reunified the Democratic Party with Jackson's
victories in 1828 and 1832. <br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>-</b></span></span>presidency of Andrew Jackson-<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> 1829-1837</span></span></span><br />
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6rO1jLdtKWVhY+RCSWgurYgWfn7LLZsYhypYmig15FWtdmZDcAxOeC9t0GjYErI50gmypJQOkPcXAensqwTogSSSTiitTQ5EkJuN7h8lCUguzTgzj6s19NlHSfXsr4kDxYNrLqfHyZIXeU7eijXEv0Wnla+n/9k=" style="display: inline-block; height: 122px; margin: 0px 0px 0px 0px; width: 122px;" title="http://www.biography.com/people/thomas-jefferson-9353715" width="122" /><br />
<br />
-In 1848, the National Convention established the Democratic National
Committee, now the longest running political organization in the world.
The Convention charged the DNC with the responsibility of promoting "the
Democratic cause" between the conventions and preparing for the next
convention.<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">-presidency of</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Franklin Pierce, 1853-1857</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1854 - Opponents of slavery, or abolitionists, set up Republican Party.</span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Republican party grew out of the conflicts regarding the
expansion of slavery into the new Western territories. The stimulus for
its founding was provided by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of
1854. That law repealed earlier compromises that had excluded slavery
from the territories. The passage of this act served as the unifying
agent for abolitionists and split the Democrats and the Whig party.
"Anti-Nebraska" protest meetings spread rapidly through the country. Two
such meetings were held in Ripon, Wis., on Feb. 28 and Mar. 20, 1854,
and were attended by a group of abolitionist Free Soilers, Democrats,
and Whigs. They decided to call themselves Republicans-because they
professed to be political descendants of Thomas Jefferson's
Democratic-Republican party. The name was formally adopted by a state
convention held in Jackson, Mich., on July 6, 1854.</span></span></span><br />
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" style="height: 177px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 136px;" /></span></span></span></pre>
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1856- November - John C. Fremont, the first candidate for president under the banner of the Republican </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Party, loses his bid for the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>presidency to James C. Buchanan, despite support for Fremont from </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Abraham Lincoln. Buchanan, the only bachelor to become<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>president as well as the sole </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Pennsylvanian garnered 174 Electoral College votes to 114 for Fremont. Millard Fillmore, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">running on the American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Know-Nothing and Whig tickets was also defeated</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1858 the Republicans won control of the House of Representatives for the first time</span>.</span>
</span></span></pre>
<span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1860</b> - Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln elected president.</span><br />
-As the 19th Century came to a close, the American electorate changed
more and more rapidly. The Democratic Party embraced the immigrants who
flooded into cities and industrial centers, built a political base by
bringing them into the American mainstream, and helped create the most
powerful economic engine in history. Democratic Party leader William
Jennings Bryan led a movement of agrarian reformers and supported the
right of women's suffrage, the progressive graduated income tax and the
direct election of Senators. As America entered the 20th Century, the
Democratic Party became dominant in local urban politics.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1912- November 5, 1912 - In the first election of a Democratic candidate
since 1892, Woodrow Wilson overcame a three way race for the presidency
when former President Teddy Roosevelt donned the nomination of the
Progressive Party to tackle the election against Wilson and incumbant
President and Republican William Howard Taft. This split
caused the election of Wilson, who garnered 435 Electoral College votes to 88
for Roosevelt and only 8 for Taft.</span></pre>
1964- November 3, 1964 - President Lyndon B. Johnson wins his first
presidential election with a victory over Barry M. Goldwater from
Arizona. Johnson extended the Democratic victory by former
running mate John F. Kennedy with a 486 to 52 thrashing of the
Republican candidate in the Electoral College and over 15 million
surplus in the popular vote.<br />
1994- November 8- The Republican revolution concludes with the midterm
elections when for the first time in forty years, the party gains
control of both the Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives.
<br />
<b>2009 </b>January - First "Tea Party" rally held in protest at
Obama administration's plans to bail out banks and introduce healthcare
reform. The populist and libertarian movement acts as focus for
conservative opposition to the president's reform plan
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<br />
<b>THE WAR OF 1812.</b><br />
<br />
-The United States begins to build up its navy with the launching of
three ships. The U.S. frigate United States in Philadelphia
on July 10, 1797; the Constellation in Baltimore on September 7; and
the Constitution (old Ironsides) in Boston, September 20. The
Constitution, a 44 gun frigate, would immediately see service against
Barbary pirates of the coast of Tripoli.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSfJ46kl7DeTG_mJT9SSL1JzjzBqMp736EjEW2kLuz8hQYLcoYw8A" data-sz="f" name="k085kixC3LVbKM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSfJ46kl7DeTG_mJT9SSL1JzjzBqMp736EjEW2kLuz8hQYLcoYw8A" style="height: 184px; margin-left: -5px; margin-top: 0px; width: 248px;" /><br />
<br />
1806 - The British blockade France; American ships are caught in the middle and the British seize approximately 1000 US ships.<b> </b><br />
<b> 1807</b> June - The American ship <i>Chesapeake</i> is fired on by the British ship Leopard after refusing to be boarded. This creates an international incident.<br />
<b>1807</b> December- Thomas Jefferson attempts "peaceful coercion"
of the British with his embargo but it results in economic disaster for
merchants<br />
<b> </b>1809-1817- James Madison is president<br />
<br />
1812 - June 28- America declares war against the British. This war
is known as "Mr. Madison's War" or "The Second American Revolution."<br />
<b>1812-15</b>
- War of 1812 between the US and Britain, partly over the effects of
British restrictions on US trade during the Napoleonic Wars.<br />
<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQvCh7EkyxPyxnuPslyB2Elsn4m1_t_55X_FHj1m2C38EYTR889JQ" data-sz="f" name="6L3a7kP-FuxmQM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQvCh7EkyxPyxnuPslyB2Elsn4m1_t_55X_FHj1m2C38EYTR889JQ" style="height: 179px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -7px; width: 240px;" /><br />
<br />
1812 - Aug. 16- U.S. loses Ft. Mackinac as the British invade American territory.<br />
1812 - Three attempts are made by the U.S. to invade Canada. They all end in failure.<br />
1814 - Dec, 24 Treaty of Ghent. The British and American diplomats agree to return to the status quo from before the war.<br />
1815 - Jan. Battle of New Orleans. Andrew Jackson
scores a huge victory and paves the way to the White House. 700 British
are killed, 1400 are wounded. The US only loses 8 soldiers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>STATE-FEDERAL RELATIONS. </b><br />
<br />
1833- March 2- The Force Bill is signed by President Andrew Jackson,
which would authorize him to use troops to enforce Federal law in South
Carolina, if necessary.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1860-61
- Eleven pro-slavery southern states secede from Union and form
Confederate States of America under leadership of Jefferson Davis,
triggering civil war with abolitionist northern states.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1867- Southern states
readmitted to Union.</span></span><br />
<br />
<b>THE CIVIL WAR.</b><br />
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1862- August – Union loses Second Battle of Bull Run
- December – Union loses Battle of Fredericksburg and over 12,600 men, South loses about 5,300.
- Slavery is abolished in the District of Columbia.</span> </span></span></pre>
<br />
<b>1863</b> - Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation, declaring slaves in Confederate states to be free.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">March – Conscription enacted </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">- Union defeat at
Chancellorville: Union loses 17,000, South 13,000</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">- July - Battle of Gettysburg –
Major Union victory – defensive battle - Draft/race Riots in New </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">York City</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="B4JhPWoYe2h2zM:" 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+g1rWwNT6W1EaLxYgzC4VvutNf8A6SGIw7WvygWka63ndeLEAMZ8TuwCTpYZrgSR8hfVYsQJYlognqY8pQXMkH+UmP6rFiD/2Q==" style="height: 132px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 176px;" /> </span></span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>1864- </b>Sherman marches through Georgia, Lincoln re-elected<br />
1865- April 9 – Lee
Surrenders</span></span><span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">-April 14 – Lincoln shot, dies next
day. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">- May – Remaining
Confederate armies surrender. END OF CIVIL WAR</span> </span></span></span></div>
<br />
- Confederates defeated.<br />
<br />
<b>December 18- </b>The 13th <b>Amendment</b> is added to the Constitution.<br />
Jun 16, 1866 - The 14th <b>Amendment</b> is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b><b>CRIME, OUTLAWRY, LAW ENFORCEMENT, GUN CONTROL.</b> </b><br />
<i>With help from: http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm</i><br />
<br />
1791- The Bill of Rights, including the Second Amendment -- <i>"A well regulated militia,
being necessary to the security of a free state, the<b> right of the people to keep and bear
arms</b>, shall not be infringed." </i>gains final ratification.<br />
<i> </i><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1837- </span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Georgia passes a law banning handguns. The law is ruled unconstitutional and
thrown out.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1865- </span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">In a reaction to emancipation, several southern states adopt "black
codes" which, among other things, <b>forbid black persons from possessing firearms.</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1871 </span>The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.nra.org/">National Rifle Association (NRA)</a> is
organized around its primary goal of improving American civilians' marksmanship in
preparation for war. (<i>http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm)</i><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1873- </span>July 21- Jesse James and the James-Younger
Gang engage in the first successful train robbery in the American West,
taking three thousand dollars from the Rock Island Express at Adair,
Iowa. <br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1878- February 18- The Lincoln County War begins in New Mexico between
two group of wealthy businessmen, the ranchers and the Lincoln County
general store. William Bonney, aka Billy the Kid, fought
alongside the ranchers in a dispute over seizure of horses as a payment
of an outstanding debt<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">October 26, 1881 - The gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone,
Arizona occurs in a livery stable lot between some of the famous
characters of the American west; Sheriff Wyatt Earp, his brother
Virgil, and Doc Holliday against Billy Claiborne, Frank and Tom McLaury
and the Clanton brothers Billy and Ike. Although only thirty
seconds long, the battle would live in western lore for more than one
hundred years. The McLaury brothers and Billy Clanton would
perish in the fight. </span></span> </span></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1920 - Sale and manufacture of alcoholic liquors outlawed. The Prohibition
era sees a mushrooming of illegal drinking joints, home-produced alcohol
and gangsterism. </span></span></span></span></pre>
1927- Congress passes a law banning the mailing of concealable weapons.<br />
1934- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/26/ch53.html">National Firearms
Act of 1934</a><b> regulating only fully automatic firearms like sub-machine guns</b> is approved
by Congress.(<i>http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm)</i><br />
1939- The Federal Firearms Act of 1938 places the <b>first limitations on selling ordinary
firearms. </b>Persons selling guns are required to obtain a Federal Firearms License, at an
annual cost of $1, and to maintain records of the name and address of persons to whom
firearms are sold. Gun sales to persons convicted of violent felonies were prohibited.<i> </i> <br />
<i> </i><br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="atrZJf7lbCAgOM:" 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" style="height: 170px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 176px;" /><br />
1924- May 10- J. Edgar Hoover is appointed to lead the Federal Bureau
of Investigation.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> 1929-February 14- In Chicago, Illinois, gangsters working for Al
Capone kill seven rivals in the act known as the St. Valentine's Day
Massacre.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1932- March 1, 1932 - The infant son of Charles Lindbergh and Anne Morrow
Lindbergh, Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Jr., is kidnapped. Heis found dead on May 12 not far from his home</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> in Hopewell, New Jersey. Three years later, on February 13, 1935, Bruno Hauptmann
was found guilty of the crime. </span> </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1963 - Nov. 22- shortly after, evidence in the the assassination of President John F. Kennedy increased public awareness to the relative lack
of <b>control over the sale and possession of firearms</b> in America. Indeed, until 1968,
handguns, rifles, shotguns, and ammunition were commonly sold over-the-counter and through
mail-order catalogs and magazines to just about any adult anywhere in the nation. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1968- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/ch44.html">Gun Control Act of 1968</a> - "...was enacted for the purpose of <b>keeping firearms out of the hands of
those not legally entitled to possess them because of age, criminal background, or
incompetence."</b> -- <i>Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms </i>The Act regulates
imported guns, expands the gun-dealer licensing and record keeping requirements, and
places specific limitations on the sale of handguns. The list of persons banned from
buying guns is expanded to include persons convicted of any non-business related felony,
persons found to be mentally incompetent, and users of illegal drugs. </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">(<i>http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm)</i> </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1972- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.atf.treas.gov/core/firearms/firearms.htm" target="Netscape93">Bureau ofAlcohol Tobacco and Firearms</a> is created listing as part of its mission the control of
illegal use and sale of firearms and the <b>enforcement of Federal firearms laws.</b> ATF issues
firearms licenses and conducts firearms licensee qualification and compliance inspections.
1975 - Heiress Patty Hearst is kidnapped in San Francisco. She would be recovered by FBI agents on
September 8 and subsequently indicted for bank robbery. Hurst would be
convicted of the crime two years later. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1977- </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">The District of Columbia enacts an anti-handgun law which also requires
<b>registration of all rifles and shotguns</b> within the District of Columbia. </span></pre>
1986- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/career.htm">Armed Career Criminal Act</a>
(Public Law 99-570) increases <b>penalties for possession of firearms by persons not
qualified to own them</b> under the Gun Control Act of 1986.<br />
The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/mcclure.htm">Firearms Owners
Protection Act</a> (Public Law 99-308) relaxes some restrictions on gun and ammunition
sales and establishes mandatory penalties for <b>use of firearms during the commission of a
crime.</b>
<br />
The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/bullet.htm">Law Enforcement Officers
Protection Act</a> (Public Law 99-408) bans possession of <b>"cop killer" bullets</b>
capable of penetrating bulletproof clothing.http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm<br />
1989- California b<b>ans the possession of semiautomatic assault weapons</b> following the
massacre of five children on a Stockton, CA school playground. <br />
1990- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/cca1990.htm">Crime Control Act of
1990</a> (Public Law 101-647) bans<b> manufacturing and importing semiautomatic assault
weapons</b> in the U.S. "Gun-free school zones" are established carrying specific
penalties for violations.<br />
1993-
February 28- The fifty-one day Waco standoff begins when the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms attempt to arrest the Branch
Dividian leader David Koresh on federal arms violations. Four
agents and five members of the cult are killed in the raid.
The
siege would end on April 19 when a fire, started by the Davidians,
killed seventy-five members of the group, including the leader.<br />
1994- June 12- The bodies of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman
are found outside her home in Los Angeles, California. Five
days
later, her husband, former football star O.J. Simpson is arrested for
the crime, but is later acquitted on October 3,
1995. The
Simpson case was one of the highest profile murder cases in the
nation's history.<br />
<br />
1994- The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/brady.htm">Brady Handgun Violence Prevention
Act</a> (Public Law 103-159) imposes a<b> five-day waiting period </b>on the purchase of a
handgun and requires that local law enforcement agencies conduct background checks on
purchasers of handguns. (<a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.atf.treas.gov/core/firearms/information/brady/brady.htm">ATF's Brady Law
web site</a>.)
<br />
The <a href="http://usgovinfo.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.uh.edu/%7Edbarclay/rm/assault.htm">Violent Crime Control and Law
Enforcement Act of 1994</a> (Public Law 103-322) <b>bans all sale, manufacture, importation,
or possession of a number of specific types of assault weapons.</b><br />
1994- September 13- President Bill Clinton signs the Assault Weapons
Ban, which bars the use of these weapons for ten years.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092699.htm<br />
<br />
1995 - Oklahoma bomb kills more than 160 people in worst ever
incident of its kind in US. April 19- Anarchists Timothy McVeigh and
Terry Nichols explode a
bomb outside the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City.<br />
<b>2001 </b>October - USA Patriot Act approved by the Senate, giving
the government greater powers to detain suspected terrorists, eavesdrop
on communications and counter money-laundering. In November, President
Bush signs a directive to try suspected terrorists in military tribunals
rather than the courts<br />
<span class="date">14 Dec 2012: </span>
The shooting at Sandy Hook elementary school in Newtown, Connecticut, is one of many in the US over the past 50 years,<br />
2012-2013-
the Sandy Hook school shooting sparks nation wide gun control debates
for and against proposals to ban military grade weapons. <br />
<br />
<b><b>NATIVE AMERICANS</b></b><br />
<b><b> </b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">20,000 BC- beginning of <span style="font-size: small;">migrations ac<span style="font-size: small;">ross the Bering Straits of peoples who would bec<span style="font-size: small;">ome the native Indian peoples of America.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">200 BC –
400 AD Hopewell culture – Ohio and Mississippi </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">650<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal;">
-
</span>Bow and arrow
and other crude tools, corn in Northwest </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1150 - founding of Hopi
village</span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><img alt="" class="rg_hi uh_hi" data-height="180" data-width="240" height="180" id="rg_hi" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTE3VEdavmYeoL5UTHuuy8QTvk_r5ydqhpKsX4Uc73N-1cg5AnhVg" style="height: 180px; width: 240px;" width="240" /> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ancient Hopi Village.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1200 - high point of
Mississippian cultures - Cahokia</span></span> </span></span></span></span><br />
1450- <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
-
Founding of the
Iroquois Confederacy in Northeast U.S.</span></span><b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1675 - 1676 - King Philip's War
erupts in New England between colonists and Native Americans as a result
of tensions over colonist's expansionist activities. The bloody war
rages up and down the Connecticut River valley in Massachusetts and in
the Plymouth and Rhode Island colonies, eventually resulting in 600
English colonials being killed and 3,000 Native Americans, including
women and children on both sides. King Philip (the colonist's nickname
for Metacomet, chief of the Wampanoags) is hunted down and killed on
August 12, 1676, in a swamp in Rhode Island, ending the war in southern
New England and ending the independent power of Native Americans there.
In New Hampshire and Maine, the Saco Indians continue to raid
settlements for another year and a half.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1690
- The beginning of King William's War as hostilities in Europe
between the French and English spill over to the colonies. In
February, Schenectady, New York is burned by the French with the aid of
their Native American allies.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1702
- In March, Queen Anne ascends the English throne. In May, England
declares war on France after the death of the King of Spain, Charles II,
to stop the union of France and Spain. This War of the Spanish
Succession is called Queen Anne's War in the colonies, where the English
and American colonists will battle the French, their Native American
allies, and the Spanish for the next eleven years.</span></span></span> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1711
- Hostilities break out between Native Americans and settlers in North
Carolina after the massacre of settlers there. The conflict, known as
the Tuscarora Indian War will last two years</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1754
- The French and Indian War erupts as a result of disputes over land in the
Ohio River Valley. In May, George Washington leads a small group of American
colonists to victory over the French, then builds Fort Necessity in the Ohio
territory. In July, after being attacked by numerically superior French
forces, Washington surrenders the fort and retreats.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1755
- In February, English General Edward Braddock arrives in Virginia with two
regiments of English </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">troops. Gen. Braddock assumes the post of commander in
chief of all English forces in America. In April, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Gen. Braddock and Lt. Col.
George Washington set out with nearly 2000 men to battle the French in the </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Ohio territory. In July, a force of about 900 French and Indians defeat
those English forces. Braddock is </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">mortally wounded. Massachusetts Governor
William Shirley then becomes the new commander in chief.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1756
- England declares war on France, as the French and Indian War in the
colonies now spreads to </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Europe.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1757
- In June, William Pitt becomes England's Secretary of State and escalates
the French and Indian War </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in the colonies by establishing a policy of
unlimited warfare. In July, Benjamin Franklin begins a five year stay </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">in
London.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1758
- In July, a devastating defeat occurs for English forces at Lake George,
New York, as nearly two </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">thousand men are lost during a frontal attack
against well entrenched French forces at Fort Ticonderoga. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">French losses are
377. In November, the French abandon Fort Duquesne in the Ohio territory.
Settlers then </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">rush into the territory to establish homes. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1758<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> the
first Indian reservation in America is founded, in </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">New Jersey, on 3000
acres.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1759
- French Fort Niagara is captured by the English. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>759<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> war erupts
between Cherokee Indians and southern colonists.</span> </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The French and Indian War, known in Europe as the Seven Year's War, ends
with the Treaty of </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Paris. Under the treaty, France gives England all French
territory east of the Mississippi River, except New </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">Orleans. The Spanish
give up east and west Florida to the English in return for Cuba.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span></span>763
- In May, the Ottawa Native Americans under Chief Pontiac begin all-out
warfare against the British </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">west of Niagara, destroying several British
forts and conducting a siege against the British at Detroit. In </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">August,
Pontiac's forces are defeated by the British near Pittsburgh. The siege of
Detroit ends in November, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">but hostilities between the British and Chief
Pontiac continue for several years.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1763
- The Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits
any English settlement west of the Appalachian mountains and requires those
already settled in those regions to return east in an attempt to ease
tensions with Native Americans.</span></span></span><br />
-presidency of <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Andrew Jackson, 1829-1837</span></span></span><br />
<br />
1830- May 26- The United States Congress approved the Indian Removal
Act, which facilitated the relocation of Indian tribes from east of the
Mississippi River. Although this act did not order their
removal,
it paved the way for increased pressure on Indian tribes to accept
land-exchange treaties with the U.S. government and helped lead the way
to the "Trail of Tears."<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1873-</span>August 4 - The Seventh Cavalry under the command of Lt. Colonel
George Armstrong Custer, protecting a railroad survey party in Montana,
engage the Sioux for the first time near the Tongue River in one minor
clash of the Indian War. The Indian Wars, which had raged
throughout 1873, saw the First Battle of the Stronghold on January 17,
and the Second Battle of the Stronghold on April 15-17, and the end of
the Modoc War on June 4 when Captain Jack was captured.<br />
<br />
1875- November 9- Reporting on the Indian Wars, inspector E.C. Watkins
pronounces that hundreds of Sioux and Cheyenne under Indian leaders
Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse are openly hostile against the United
States government, forming U.S. policy over the next year that would
lead to battles such as Little Big Horn. <br />
1876- January 31, 1876 - The United States government
issues
a decree ordering all Native Americans onto a system of reservations
throughout the western lands of the United States.<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1876</b> - Sioux Indians defeat US troops at Little Big Horn.</span><br />
<br />
<img height="393" id="irc_mi" src="http://www.ya-native.com/images/ChiefCrazyHorse.jpg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="281" /><br />
1877 May 6- Indian leader of the Oglala Sioux, Crazy Horse,
surrenders to the United States Army in Nebraska. His
people had been weakened by cold and hunger.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">July 20, 1881 - Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of final group<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>of his tribe, still fugitive from the reservation, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">and surrenders toUnited States troops at Fort Buford, Montana.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>1890</b> - US troops defeat Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee. </span></span></pre>
1893 September 16 - The 4th of five land runs in Oklahoma's dash,
known as the Oklahoma Land Race or
the Cherokee Strip Land Run, opened seven million acres of the
Cherokee Strip. It was purchased from the Indian tribe for
$7,000,000. Nearly 100,000 people gathered around the 42,000
claims that were available to the first person, with a certificate, to
stake a claim<br />
1924 - Congress gives indigenous people right to citizenship. <br />
<br />
<b>ASSASSINATIONS</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1865-April 14 – Lincoln <span style="font-size: small;">assassinated during a play at<span style="font-size: small;"> the Ford Theatre,</span></span> dies next
day. </span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></b><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1881- July 2, 1881 - The 20th President of the United States, James A.Garfield, is shot </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">by lawyer Charles J. Guiteau in the Baltimore and<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Potomac Railroad station in Washington, D.C. </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">He would die two<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>months later on September 19, 1881 from an infection and be succeeded
in the presidency by Vice President Chester Arthur on September 20.</span></span></pre>
1901- September 6- President William H. McKinley is shot at the
Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York while shaking hands with
fair visitors, following his speech at the event on President's Day the
day before. Anarchist Leon Czolgosz, an avowed anarchist, is
arrested for the crime. <br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1963 Nov. - President John F Kennedy assassinated; Lyndon Johnson becomes president.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1968- April 4, Assassination of Civil Rights leader Martin Luther King. </span></span></span></pre>
1968- June 5- Presidential candidate, the Democratic Senator from New
York, Robert F. Kennedy, is shot at a campaign victory celebration in
Los Angeles by Sirhan Sirhan, a Jordanian, after primary victories, and
dies one day later.<br />
1981- March 30- President Ronald Reagan withstands an assassination
attempt, shot in the chest while walking to his limousine in
Washington, D.C.<br />
<br />
<b>LATIN AMERICAN RELATIONS.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1598 - <span style="font-size: small;">D</span>eOnate leads Spanish into New Mexico</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1609 - Spanish found Santa Fe.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1739
- England declares war on Spain. As a result, in America, hostilities break
out between Florida Spaniards and Georgia and South Carolina colonists.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1740<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> in Europe, the War of the
Austrian Succession begins after the death of Emperor Charles VI and
eventually results in France and Spain allied against England. The conflict
is known in the American colonies as King George's War and lasts until
1748.</span></span></span><br />
1817-1825- -presidency of James Monroe.<br />
1823- Dec. 2- Monroe Doctrine - In a speech before Congress, James Monroe announces
the Monroe Doctrine, stating the policy that European
intervention anyplace is the Americas is opposed and that he would
establish American neutrality in future European wars.<br />
1846-48
- US acquires vast tracts of Mexican territory in wake of Mexican War
including California and New Mexico.<br />
1846-May 8- The first
conflict of the Mexican War occurs north of the
Rio Grande River at Palo Alto, Texas when United States troops under
the command of Major General Zachary Taylor rout a larger Mexican
force. Zachary had been ordered by President Polk to sieze
disputed Texas land settled by Mexicans.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1</span>898- </span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">April 22, 1898 - The blockade of Cuba begins when the United States<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Navy aids independence forces</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> within Cuba. Several days<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>later,<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>the U.S.A. declares war on Spain, backdating its declaration to April
20.
May 12, 1898 - San Juan, Puerto Rico is bombed by the American navy<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>under the command of Rear Admiral</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">William T. Sampson. Puerto<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Rico<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>is overtaken by the United States between July 25 with its landing at<span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Guanica Bay and August 12. These acts during the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Spanish-American<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>War would ultimately result in Spain </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">deciding in December to cede<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>lands, including Puerto Rico, to the United States. </span></span></pre>
<b>1898</b> - US gains Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines and Cuba following the Spanish-American war. US annexes Hawaii.<br />
1901- March 2 - The Platt amendment is passed by the United States
Congress, which limited the autonomy of Cuba as a condition for
American troop withdrawal. Cuba would become a U.S.
protectorate on June 12. <br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1903- November 3- With United States support after the Hay-Herran<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Treaty rejection by Columbia </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">earlier in the year, Panama declares its<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>independence from Columbia. The Panama government is
recognized by President Theodore Roosevelt three days later and sign a<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>canal treaty on November 18, </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">allowing the U.S. led construction of the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>canal.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> </span><img height="323" id="irc_mi" src="http://www.usmilitariaforum.com/uploads//monthly_09_2012/post-9487-1347634294.jpg" style="margin-top: 35px;" width="574" /></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1912- August 14 - The United States Marines are ordered to Nicaragua
due to its default on loans to the United States and its European
allies.</span></pre>
<b>1916</b>- March 8-9 -
Pancho
Villa raids Columbus, New Mexico and other border towns along the
Mexican and United States lines with 1,500 troops, that would lead, on
March 16, to General John J. Pershing entering Mexico in pursuit of
Villa with the 7th and 10th U.S. cavalry. Wilson had
authorized
12,000 troops to cross the border one day earlier. <br />
<br />
1978- April 18- The United States Senate votes to return the Panama
Canal back to Panama on December 31, 1999. A treaty for the
return had been signed on September 7 of the previous year, pending
approval by the U.S. Congress.<br />
1983-1990- The White House circumvents Congress to prosecute a secretly
funded war against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua.<br />
1983 - US invades Caribbean nation of Grenada, partly prompted by its concerns over the island's ties with Cuba. <br />
1986- "Irangate" scandal uncovered, revealing that
proceeds from secret US arms sales to Iran were used illegally to fund
Contra rebels in Nicaragua.<br />
1987- August 12- Near the end of hearings into the
Iran-contra affair, President Reagan admitted to a policy that went
astray, but denied knowledge of the diversion of funds to the contras.<br />
1988-February 3 - The United States House of
Representatives rejects the request of President Reagan for $36.25
million to fund the Nicaraguan Contras<br />
<b>1989</b>
- US troops invade Panama, oust its government and arrest its leader,
one-time Central Intelligence Agency informant General Manuel Noriega,
on drug-trafficking charges. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>LEARNING, INNOVATION, INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY.</b><br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1636 - H<span style="font-size: small;">arvard fou<span style="font-size: small;">nded</span></span> - In June, Roger Williams founds Providence and Rhode
Island. Williams</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">had been banished from Massachusetts for "new and
dangerous opinions" calling for religious and </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">political freedoms,
including separation of church and state, not granted under the Puritan
rules.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Providence then becomes a haven for many other colonists fleeing
religious intolerance.</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1693
- The College of William and Mary is founded in Williamsburg,
Virginia.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1701- October<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-</span></span>
Yale College is founded in Connecticut.</span></span></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1731
- The first American public library is founded in Philadelphia by Benjamin
Franklin.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1800 (circ<span style="font-size: small;">a) </span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-size: small;">-The American System of Manufacturing is invented by Eli Whitney, who
uses semi-skilled labor, machine tools, and jigs to make standardized,
interchangeable parts, then an aseembly line of labor.
Whitney
first used the system to manufacture 10,000 muskets for the U.S.
Government.</span> </span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1885-March 3- American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) is<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>incorporated in New York City as a </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">subsidiary of American Bell<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Telephone Company.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1889-1893 The Republicans passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, admitted several new states to the
Union, and passed the highly protective McKinley Tariff Act.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<b> </b><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1895- </span>November 5- The first United States patent for the automobile,
#549160, is granted to George B. Selden for his two stroke automobile
engine.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1903- December 17- Inventors Wilbur and Orville Wright succeed in the
first sustained and manned plane flight, taking the heavier-than-air<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>machine through the winds of </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Kill Devil Hill, North Carolina, and man<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>into an age of flight. The plane, mechanically propelled with
a petroleum engine, flew 120 feet in 12 seconds, and later the same<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>day, flew 852 feet in 59 seconds . </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">They would patent the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Airplane three years later on May 22, 1906. Photo top right:
Orville Wright on the 3rd<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>flight on December 17, 1903 at Kitty Hawk, NC</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQMHJEs3FY1eWW8g7JNLMRuouMDeBxw3sZf8Ku4dcRnfocWnvUy2A" data-sz="f" name="GH_opQiHaCeReM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQMHJEs3FY1eWW8g7JNLMRuouMDeBxw3sZf8Ku4dcRnfocWnvUy2A" style="height: 177px; margin-left: -3px; margin-top: 0px; width: 189px;" /></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></pre>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1908- September 27- The first production Model T was built at the Ford
plant in Detroit, Michigan.</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1923 - The first sound on film motion picture "Phonofilm" is show
in the Rivoli Theatre in New York City by Lee de Forest. </span></span></pre>
<br />
1926- Air Commerce Act is passed, providing aid and assistance to the airline
industry, plus federal oversight under the Department of Commerce for
civil air safety.<br />
1927- May 20- Charles Lindbergh leaves Roosevelt Field, New York on
the first non-stop transatlantic flight in history. He would
reach Paris thirty-three and one-half hours later in the Spirit of St.
Louis, his aircraft. A ticker tape parade would be held in
New
York City after his return on June 13.<br />
1927- October 6- The advent of talking pictures emerges. Al
Jolson in the Jazz Singer debuts in New York City.<br />
<br />
1939- August 2, 1939 - Albert Einstein alerts Franklin D. Roosevelt to an
A-bomb opportunity, which led to the creation of the Manhattan
Project. Einstein had arrived as a fugitive from Nazi Germany
six
years earlier on October 17, 1933.<br />
1942-
December 2- The first nuclear chain reaction is produced at the
University of Chicago in the Manhattan Project, creating fission of the
Uranium U-235, under the direction of physicists Arthur Compton and
Enrico Fermi.<br />
1951- September 4- The inauguration of trans-continental television
occurs with the broadcast of President Truman's speech at the Japanese
Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco. <br />
1958- January 31- Explorer I, the first U.S. space
satellite, is launched by the Army at Cape Canaveral. It
would
discover the Van Allen radiation belt.<br />
1961- May 5- The first U.S. manned sub-orbital space flight is
completed with Commander Alan B. Shepard Jr. inside a Mercury capsule
launched 116.5 miles above the earth from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Twenty days later, President Kennedy
announces his
intention to place a man on the moon by the end of the decade.<br />
1962- February 20- Lt. Colonel John Glenn becomes the first U.S.
astronaut in orbit in the Friendship 7 Mercury capsule. <br />
-US astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon.<br />
1976- July 20- The Viking 1 space probe successfully lands on
Mars. It would be followed by a second unmanned Viking II on
the
Utopia Plains on September 3. The first color photos of the
surface of Mars are taken on these flights. <br />
1983- March 23 - The initial proposal to develop
technology to intercept incoming missiles, the Strategic Defense
Initiative Program, or Star Wars, is made by President Ronald Reagan.<br />
<b>1986</b>
January - Space shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after take off from
Cape Canaveral. All seven crew members are killed. Manned space flights
are suspended until September 1988. <br />
1997- March 4- Federal funding for any research into human cloning is
barred by President Bill Clinton.<br />
1998- May 18- The United States Department of Justice and twenty
states file the anti-trust case, U.S. versus Microsoft. On
November 5, 1999, a preliminary ruling stated that Microsoft had
monopoly power.<br />
2000- April 3
-
The ruling in the case of the United States versus Microsoft states
that the company did violate anti-trust laws by diminishing the
capability of its rivals to compete.<br />
<br />
<b>2001 </b>July - US tests its controversial missile defence shield, or "Son of Star Wars". <br />
<b>2003</b> February
- Space shuttle Columbia's 28th mission ends in tragedy when the craft
breaks-up while re-entering the atmosphere. The seven astronauts on
board are killed.<br />
2005- July 26, 2005 - In the first Space Shuttle flight since the tragedy of
2003, Discovery goes into orbit on a mission that returns to earth
safely on August 9.<br />
<b>2011 </b>July
- The final Space Shuttle mission is completed with the landing of
Atlantis on 21 July, bringing about the end of the 30-year programme<br />
<br />
<b>RACE RELATIONS.</b><br />
<br />
1875- March 1 - The Civil Rights Act, giving equal
rights to blacks in jury duty and accommodation is passed by the United
States Congress. <br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1870s-1920s- epidemic of white mob lynchings of blacks, mostly in the American South.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1883- </span><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">Civil Rights Act</span> overturned in 1883 by the U.S.
Supreme Court<span style="font-size: small;"> with ad<span style="font-size: small;">verse effe<span style="font-size: small;">cts for black Americans.</span></span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1909- May 30- The National Conference of the Negro is conducted,
leading to the formation of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People, (NAACP). </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">-Jim <span style="font-size: small;">C</span>rowe laws rein<span style="font-size: small;">force segregation throughout the South.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1937- March 26- William Henry Hastie is appointed to the federal
bench, becoming the first African-American to become a federal judge. </span></pre>
1943- June 21- Race riots in Detroit and Harlem cause forty deaths and
seven hundred injuries. <br />
<br />
1948- July 26- Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the United
States military in signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman.<br />
1967 July - Black riots plague U.S. cities. In Newark, New
Jersey, twenty-six are killed, fifteen hundred injured and one thousand
arrested from July 12 to 17. One week later, July 23 to 30,
forty
are killed, two thousand injured, and five thousand left homeless after
rioting in Detroit, known as the 12th Street Riots, decimate a black
ghetto. The riots are eventually stopped by over 12,500
Federal
troopers and National Guardsmen. <br />
<b>1968</b> - April 4, Black civil rights leader Martin Luther King assassinated. Blacks riot throughout eastern US.<br />
1986- January 20- Martin Luther King Day is officially observed for the first time
as a federal holiday in the United States. <br />
<br />
<b>PROTEST, CIVIL RIGHTS, LABOUR, WOMEN AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION</b><br />
<br />
1791 - Bill of Rights guarantees individual freedom.<br />
1865- December 18- The 13th Amendment abolishing slavery is added to the Constitution.<br />
1866-
Jun 16 - The 14th Amendment declaring all persons born on American
soil, to be citizens (including blacks) is passed by Congress. <br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1849- Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the
United States' first women to receive a medical degree.</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1870 - 15<sup>th</sup> Amendment Ratified, giving Blacks but not women the right to vote.</span> </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">1872- </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">May 22- Civil rights are restored to citizens of the South,
except for five hundred Confederate leaders, with the passage of the
Amnesty Act of 1872 and its signing by President Ulysses S. Grant.. </span> </span></span></pre>
1875- March 1 - The Civil Rights Act, giving equal
rights to blacks in jury duty and accommodation is passed by the United
States Congress. It would be overturned in 1883 by the U.S.
Supreme Court.<br />
-As the 19th Century came to a close, the American electorate changed
more and more rapidly. The Democratic Party embraced the immigrants who
flooded into cities and industrial centers, built a political base by
bringing them into the American mainstream, and helped create the most
powerful economic engine in history. Democratic Party leader William
Jennings Bryan led a movement of agrarian reformers and supported the
right of women's suffrage, the progressive graduated income tax and the
direct election of Senators.<br />
1892-1895- a period of deep labour unrest. Strikes and strike breakers. <br />
1894- April 29- In a march of five hundred unemployed workers into
Washington, D.C. that had begun on March 25 in Massillon, Ohio, leader
James S. Coxey is arrested for treason.<br />
<br />
1896- May 18- Plessy
versus Ferguson decision by the Supreme Court states that racial
segregation is approved under the "separate but equal" doctrine.<br />
<br />
1901- September 6- President William H. McKinley is shot at the
Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York while shaking hands with
fair visitors, following his speech at the event on President's Day the
day before. Anarchist Leon Czolgosz, an avowed anarchist, is
arrested for the crime. <br />
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1909- May 30- The National Conference of the Negro is conducted,<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>leading to the formation of the </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">National Association for the<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Advancement of Colored People, (NAACP). </span></span></pre>
<b>1920</b> - Women given the right to vote under the Nineteenth Amendment.<br />
<br />
1929-33
- 13 million people become unemployed after the Wall Street stock
market crash of 1929 triggers what becomes known as the Great
Depression. President Herbert Hoover rejects direct federal relief.<br />
<pre><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1930- December 2- In order to combat the growing depression, President
Herbert Hoover asks the U.S. Congress to pass a $150 million public
works project to increase employment and economic activity </span></span></pre>
1933-March 9 - June 16, The New Deal social and economic programs are
passed by the United States Congress is a special one hundred day
session to address depression era economics.<br />
1937- March 26- William Henry Hastie is appointed to the federal
bench, becoming the first African-American to become a federal judge.<br />
1938- June 28- The National Minimum Wage is enacted within the federal
legislation known as the Fair Labor Standards Act. It
established
a minimum wage of $0.25 at the time (approx. $3.22 in 2005), as well as
time and one half for overtime and the prohibition of most employment
for minors.<br />
1946-April 1- Four hundred thousand mine workers begin to strike,
with other industries following their lead.<br />
1948- July 26- Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the United
States military in signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman.<br />
<b>1954</b>
- Racial segregation in schools becomes unconstitutional; start of
campaign of civil disobedience to secure civil rights for Americans of
African descent.<br />
1955- December 1- Rosa Parks, an African American seamstress, refuses
to give up her seat on the bus to a white man, prompting the boycott
and NAACP protect that would lead to the declaration that bus
segregation laws were unconstitutional by a federal court.<br />
December 5- The two largest American labor unions, the American
Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations, merge
to form the AFL-CIO, boasting membership of fifteen million. <br />
1956- March 12-
One hundred and one congressmen from Southern states call for massive
resistance to the Supreme Court ruling on desegregation.<br />
1957- April 29- U.S. Congress approves the first civil rights bill
since reconstruction with additional protection of voting rights.<br />
<br />
1963- August 28- The Civil Rights march on Washington DC for Jobs
and Freedom culminates with Dr. Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a
Dream" speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Over
200,000 people participated in the march for equal rights. A
monument is now planned on the National Mall to commemorate Dr. King,
the speech, and his impact on Civil Rights.<br />
1964- June 29- An omnibus legislation in the U.S. Congress on Civil
Rights is passed. It banned discrimination in jobs, voting
and
accommodations. <br />
1965- August 6 - The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is signed into law by
President Lyndon B. Johnson. Two significant portions of the
act;
the outlawing of the requirement of potential voters to take a literacy
test in order to qualify and the provision of federal registration of
voters in areas with less than 50% of all voters registered.<br />
July 1- Medicare, the government medical program for citizens
over the age of 65, begins.<br />
<br />
<b>1969</b>
- Republican Party candidate Richard Nixon elected president amid
growing public opposition to Vietnam war. US military presence in
Vietnam exceeds 500,000 personnel. <br />
1969- July 25- President Richard M. Nixon announces his new Vietnam
policy, declaring the Nixon Doctrine that expected Asian allies to care
for their own military defense. This policy, and all Vietnam
war
policies, would be heavily protested throughout the remainder of the
year. On November 15, 1969, more than two hundred and fifty
thousand anti-Vietnam war demonstrators marched on Washington, D.C. to
peacefully protest the war.<br />
1970- May 4- Four students from Kent State University in Ohio were
killed and nine wounded by National Guardsmen during a protest against
the Vietnam War spread into Cambodia.<br />
1971- June 30- The United States Supreme Court upholds the right of
the New York Times and the Washington Post to publish classified
Pentagon papers about the Vietnam War, under the articles of the First
Amendment to the Constitution. The New York Times had begun
the
publication of the Pentagon papers on June 13.<br />
1973- January 22, 1973 - The United States Supreme Court
ruled
in Roe vs. Wade that a woman can not be prevented by a state in having
an abortion during the first six months of pregnancy. <br />
1984- July 12- Democratic candidate for President, Walter Mondale,
selects Geraldine Ferraro as his Vice Presidential running mate, the
first woman chosen for that position.<br />
1986- January 20- Martin Luther King Day is officially observed for the first time
as a federal holiday in the United States. <br />
1999- November 30- The first major mobilization of the
anti-globalization movement occurs in Seattle, Washington, during the
days before the 1999 World Trade Organization meetings. The
protests and rioting caused the cancellation of the WTO opening
ceremonies.<br />
<b>2001 </b>October - USA Patriot Act approved by the Senate, giving
the government greater powers to detain suspected terrorists, eavesdrop
on communications and counter money-laundering. In November, President
Bush signs a directive to try suspected terrorists in military tribunals
rather than the courts <br />
<b>2002</b>
November - President Bush signs into law a bill creating a Department of
Homeland Security, the biggest reorganisation of federal government in
more than 50 years. The large and powerful department is tasked with
protecting the US against terrorist attacks.<br />
<b>2006</b> March - Congress renews the USA Patriot Act, a
centrepiece of the government's fight against terrorism, after months of
debate about its impact on civil liberties. The government agrees to
some curbs on information gathering.<br />
<b>2010 </b>March
- Democrats in Congress succeed in passing a bill on health care
reform, despite strong Republican opposition, procedural setbacks and
public skepticism. <br />
<b>2011 </b>September
- Anti-capitalist protesters take to the streets of major cities,
marching under the slogan "Occupy Wall Street", against "corporate
greed" and increasing government debt. The protests inspire marches in
other cities worldwide<br />
<br />
<b>WORLD WAR ONE.</b><br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1914- August 4- President Woodrow Wilson announces that the United
States will stay officially neutral in the European conflict that would
become World War I. World War I hostilities had begun on June
28 when the Archduke of Austria and his wife, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie
were killed by Serb nationalist in Sarajevo. Hostilities
would begin on July 28 when Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia for failing
to meet conditions set after the assassinations.</span></pre>
<br />
<b>1917</b>- February 3- The United States government cuts
diplomatic ties with Germany. The Zimmerman Telegram is given
to
the United States by Britain on February 24, showing the offer by
Germany to give Mexico back the southwest United States if they would
declare war on the United States. <br />
<b>1917-18</b> - US intervenes in World War I, rejects membership of League of Nations.<br />
<b>1918</b>- November 11, 1918 - Hostilities in World War I begin to end with the
Austria-Hungary alliance for armistace with the allies on November
3. Armistance Day with Germany occurs when the Allies and the
German nation sign an agreement in Compiegne, France. Woodrow
Wilson would become the first U.S. President to travel to Europe while
in office when he sails to attend the Paris Peace Conference on
December 4.<br />
<br />
<b>THE UNITED NATIONS.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>1920</b>- January 10,
1920 -
The League of Nations holds its first meeting and accomplishes the
rafitification of the Treaty of Versailles, ending the hostilities of
the first World War. Nine days later the United States Senate
votes against joining the League. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>THE MIDDLE EAST. </b><br />
<br />
1978- September 17- The Camp David Peace Agreement between Israel and
Egypt is formulated in twelve days of secret negotiations at the Camp
David retreat of the President. President Jimmy Carter
witnessed
the signing of the agreement between Israeli Prime Minister Menachem
Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat at the White House. <br />
<b>1979</b>
- US embassy in Tehran, Iran, seized by radical students. The 444-day
hostage crisis - including a failed rescue attempt in 1980 - impacts on
Carter's popularity and dominates the 1980 presidential election
campaign.<br />
1980- April 24-25- The attempt to rescue the American hostages held
captive in the U.S. Embassy in Iran fails with eight Americans killed
and five wounded in Operation Eagle Claw when a mid-air collision
occurs.<br />
<br />
<b>1981</b> January - Iran frees the 52 US
embassy hostages, on the same day as President Reagan's
inauguration1983- October 23- A terrorist truck bomb kills two hundred
and
forty-one United States peacekeeping troops in Lebanon at Beirut
International Airport. A second bomb destroyed a French
barracks two miles away, killing forty there. <br />
<b>1986</b> - US warplanes
bomb Libyan cities in retaliation for a terror attack on US military personnel in a Berlin nightclub.<br />
1990- August 2, 1990 - Iraq invades its neighbor, Kuwait, setting into motion
the beginning of U.S. involvement in the Gulf War. Four days
later, the United Nations begins a global trade embargo against
Iraq. On November 29, the United Nations passes a resolution,
#678, stating that Iraq must withdraw its forces from Kuwait by January
15, 1991 or face military intervention.<br />
<b>1991</b> - US forces play
dominant role in war against Iraq, which was triggered by Iraq's
invasion of Kuwait and ended with the expulsion of Iraqi troops from
that country.<br />
1991- February 27- The Gulf War ends one day after Iraq withdraws its
forces from Kuwait and sets the oil fields on fire. A
ceasefire
is declared and Iraq accepts the condition of disarmament after one
hundred hours of ground fighting. On April 3, the United
Nations
Security Council passes Resolution 687, calling for the destruction and
removal of the entire Iraqi chemical and biologircal weapons stockpile,
plus ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150
kilometers.
Iraq also agrees to withdraw its support of international terrorism1996- June 25- The Khobar
Towers bombing in Khobar, Saudi Arabia kills nineteen U.S. military
personel, destroying the majority of a six building apartment complex
that was home to the 440th Fighter Wing. It was carried out
by
Islamic terrorists seeking removal of the U.S. presence in Saudi Arabia.<br />
1998- August 7- Attacks on two United States embassies in Africa, in
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya kills two hundred and
twenty-four and injures four thousand five hundred. The
attacks
are linked to Osama Bin Laden and his Al-Qaeda organization.
On
August 13, the United States launches cruise missile strikes against
Al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan and a suspected chemical plant in the
Sudan. <br />
1998- September 29- The United States Congress passes legislation, the
"Iraq Liberation Act" that states the U.S. wants to remove Saddam
Hussein from power and replace it with a democracy.<br />
<b>2001</b>
11 September - Co-ordinated suicide attacks on various high-profile
targets, prompting the US to embark on a ''war on terror'' which
includes the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. <br />
<b>2001 </b>October
- US leads massive campaign of air strikes against Afghanistan and
helps opposition forces defeat the Taleban regime and find Saudi-born
dissident Osama Bin Laden, who is suspected of masterminding the 11
September attacks.<br />
<b>Iraq war</b><br />
<b>2003</b> March - Missile attacks on Baghdad
mark the start of a US-led campaign to topple the Iraqi leader Saddam
Hussein. US forces advance into central Baghdad in early April.<br />
<b>2003</b> 1 May - Speaking on the deck of the aircraft carrier
Abraham Lincoln, President Bush declares that the main part of the war
in Iraq is over.<br />
2003- December 13- Saddam Hussein, former leader of Iraq, is captured
in a small bunker in Tikrit by the U.S. 4th Infantry Division. <br />
<b>2004</b> May - Furore over pictures showing the abuse of Iraqi prisoners in US custody. <br />
<b>2004</b>
July - Senate report says US and allies went to war in Iraq on "flawed"
information. Independent report into 11 September 2001 attacks
highlights deep institutional failings in intelligence services and
government.<br />
<b>2006</b>
May - The only man to be charged over the September 11 attacks,
self-confessed al-Qaeda conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui, is sentenced to
life in jail. <br />
<b>2007</b> January - President Bush
announces a new Iraq strategy; thousands more US troops will be
dispatched to shore up security in Baghdad.<br />
2009- December 1- President Obama announces a surge of 30,000
additional troops to Afghanistan to stem increased efforts by the
Taliban in the country. The surge, which was suggested by
military officers, was not popular with the liberal base of the
Democratic party which had put the President in power on a pledge to
end both Middle Eastern wars. The war in Afghanistan, which
started as a response to the terror attacks on 9/11/2001, and the war
on terror in general, comes into focus again on... <br />
-December 25 when an
airliner headed for Detroit is attacked by a Muslim
extremist, 23-year-old Umar Farouk AbdulMutallab, who attempts
to
detonate a bomb, but fails.<br />
<b>2011 </b>May - US forces kill Al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden in an operation in the Pakistani city of Abbottabad. <br />
<br />
<b> SCANDALS.</b><br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1922- April 7, 1922 - The Teapot Dome scandal begins when the U.S. Secretary
of the Interior leases the Teapot Oil Reserves in Wyoming.</span></span></pre>
1972- June 17- The Watergate crisis begins when four men are arrested
for breaking into the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the
Watergate office building in Washington DC on the same day that Okinawa is returned from U.S.
control back to Japan. <br />
1973- January 30- Two defendants in the Watergate break-in trial are
convicted. The remaining five defendants had pleaded guilty
to
the crime two weeks earlier. On April 30, the Watergate
affair
widens when four members of the Nixon administration; aides H.R.
Haldeman, John D. Ehrlichman, John W. Dean, and Attorney General
Richard Kleindienst resign under suspicion of obstructing
justice. During Senate hearings on June 25, Dean would admit
that
the administration had conspired to cover up facts about the case,
leading to the refusal of the President to release tapes concerning
Watergate. <br />
1974- May 7- Impeachment hearings are begun by the House Judiciary
Committee against President Richard M. Nixon in the Watergate
affair. On July 24, the United States Supreme Court rules
that
President Nixon must turn over the sixty-four tapes of White House
conversations concerning the Watergate break-in. <br />
<b>1974</b>
- In a TV address, Nixon announces his resignation in the wake of the
Watergate scandal, over a 1972 break-in at the Democratic Party
headquarters. Gerald Ford is sworn-in as his successor.<br />
1975- January 1- The Watergate cover up trials of
Mitchell, Haldeman, and Ehrlichman are completed; all are found guilty
of the charges.<br />
1983-1990- Contragate: The White House circumvents Congress to prosecute a secretly
funded war against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. <br />
1993-
November 20- The Senate Ethics Committee censures California
Senator Alan Cranston for his participation with Charles Keating in the
Savings and Loans scandal. The scandal had begun in the 1980s
due
to a wave of mismanagement, failed speculation, and fraud within the
industry. By the end of this crisis, almost 800 savings and loans
institutions responsible for real estate, automotive, personal and
business loans in the United States had failed. It would eventually
cost the U.S. government between $125-$150
billion to bail out the failed institutions.<br />
<b>1998</b>
- Scandal over Clinton's purported sexual impropriety with White House
worker Monica Lewinsky dominates domestic political agenda and leads to
impeachment proceedings in Congress.<br />
<b>2001</b> December - Energy giant Enron declared bankrupt after massive false-accounting comes to light.<br />
<b>2002</b> June/July - Telecoms giant WorldCom's multi-billion
dollar accounting fraud is revealed, eclipsing the Enron scandal to
become the biggest business failure in US history.<br />
2003-2004: Abu Graib: the American abuse and torture of prisoners during the Iraq War. <br />
<span class="date">2012, 13 November-</span> CIA Director Petraeus falls in scandal after it is revealed that he was having an extra marital affair with his biographer.
<br />
<br />
<b>DRUGS AND ALCOHOL.</b><br />
<br />
1920
- Sale and manufacture of alcoholic liquors outlawed. The Prohibition
era sees a mushrooming of illegal drinking joints, home-produced alcohol
and gangsterism<b><b>.</b></b><br />
1933- December 5- The 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is
passed, ending prohibition <b><b> </b></b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><b>BUSINESS, THE ECONOMY, TRADE AND WEALTH</b></b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1696
- The Royal African Trade Company loses its slave trade monopoly,
spurring colonists in New England to engage in slave trading for profit.</span></span></span> <br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1712- In Massachusetts, the first sperm
whale is captured at sea by an American from Nantucket.</span></span></span><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1720-
the ‘Mississippi Bubble’ France allows Law’s Compagnie des Indes
to assume the national debt, merge with the royal bank and collect
taxes. Stories circulating about fabulous riches in Mississippi and
Arkansas lead to massive public speculation. In October, the bubble
bursts and everyone but a canny few loses their money.</span></span> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">1733
- The Molasses Act, passed by the English Parliament, imposes heavy duties
on molasses, rum and sugar imported from non-British islands in the
Caribbean to protect the English planters there from French and Dutch
competition.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">
1790- New York Stock Exchange is founded. </span></span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1869- September 24- Prompted by an attempt to corner the gold market,
the financial Black Friday occurs in New York City.</span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1873-1896- world economic depression results in a massive drop in prices. </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1889-1893 The Republicans passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, admitted several new states to the
Union, and passed the highly protective McKinley Tariff Act.</span></span></span></span> </span></span></pre>
1893-May 5, 1893 - The New York Stock Exchange collapses, starting the
financial panic of 1893. It would lead to a four year period
of
depression.<br />
1901- the creation of positive wealth has begun in the international
economy and will continue, interrupted only by the Depression and
recessions. <br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1907- March 13- Another financial crises occurs in the business
community with the beginning of the Financial Panic and Depression of
1907</span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> 1911- May 15- Standard Oil is declared in unreasonable monopoly by the
United States Supreme Court and ordered dissolved under the powers of
the Sherman Antitrust Act.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1913- February 3, 1913 - The 16th Amendment to the United States Constitution
is ratified, allowing the Federal government treasury to impose an
income tax. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1913- December 23- A major reform of the American financial and
banking system occurs with the authorization of the U.S. Congress for
the establisment of the Federal Reserve System.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1919- </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">-the US, starting as supplier of the allied nations before joining the
war in 1917, goes from being a debtor nation in 1914 to a major lender, a
ceditor nation, by 1919.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1921- US embarks on a policy of heavy government subsidizing of the
economy, by extending credit nationally internationally from the Federal
Reserve, giving artificial support to exporters and to selected foreign
loans and bond issues to keep the international economy healthy and of
benefit to the US. Many of these will turn out to be bad loans.
-this massive extension of credit, internationally, is adopted in the name of "price stabilization."</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">-</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1922- the Fordney-MacCumber Tarriff Act starts a US-led trend in protectionism.</span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">1925- Europe recovers from the war; Germany receives an international loan to help it with its reparations.
1926 -deflation as commodity prices fall. But stock prices rise relentlessly.
-US holds massive internatioNal debts, accumulating since 1914.
<span style="font-size: small;">-<span style="font-size: small;">pr</span></span>omiscuous lending by brokerages as myriad investors borrow money to
buy stocks- otherwise known as "buying on margin". Sometimes the
borrowed money would account for five to ten times the amount they'd
invested of their own money. Gains could be made, strictly on paper, by
bidding against other stock holders. But losses would force those who
had bought on margin to sell their stock to pay back their lender.
-with stabilization by means of credit, prices of manufactured goods,
like cars, are not stable but keep on rising- while wages fail to keep
up, so consumer spending begins to decline.
1927- July- in response to the decline in spending, Montagu Norman,
governor of the bank of England and Benjamin Strong, governor of the New
York federal reserve Bank meet at Ogden Mills, Long island, with
Standard Oil's Ruth Pratt. Together, they secretly add more credit to
the international system. The Fed reduces its lending rate by a half
percentage to 3.5. This sets in motion the final tidal wave of
speculation. Strong's "little coup de whiskey" benefits the rich but
does little for ordinary consumers.
-foreign governments will see the Odgen Mills meeting as a political
strategy: an Anglo-American attempt to dominate the international
economy by holding other nations in debt.
-for four years, 1926-29, the Norman-Strong policy of 'price stabilization' bolsters the world economy.
1928- short-term loans in US become more expensive.
-a huge increase in buying on margin is accompanied by patched-togethert investment trusts.
-the U.S. keeps its interest rates artificially low.
-the US begins to call in European loans which borrowers have had trouble repaying.
-demand slackens in US as consumers prepare for a slow-down.
1929- in Europe and the West, manufacturing returns to 1913 levels. 1929 is a record year for European trade.
March, 1929-1933- Herbert Hoover president of the US. His 'corporatism',
the belief that America's well-being should be entrusted to an alliance
of big business, the state and the unions, is said to have led to the
state interventionism that fueled the 1929 market crash and the
depression that followed. His failure to allow interest rates to rise is
also said to have been responsible.
1929 -spring- prices on European exchanges weaken.
-June- US economy stops expanding. Shares begin earning less than they cost.
-July- US inflation is not caused by currency but by credit augmented by
the White House, Treasury, Congress, government and private banks. The
injection reaches $73 billion, up from $45 billion in 1921. Meanwhile,
interest rates are kept artificially low.
-Sept 3- US bull market comes to an end. </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"> <span style="font-size: small;">The Great Depression.</span></span></pre>
1929- October 29- Postwar prosperity ends in the 1929 Stock Market
crash. The plummeting stock prices led to losses between 1929
and
1931 of an estimated $50 billion and started the worst American
depression in the nation's history. On the
New York City docks, out of work men during the Great Depression, an
outcome of the Stock Market crash of 1929 after the prosperous decade
of the 1920's.<br />
<br />
1929-33
- 13 million people become unemployed after the Wall Street stock
market crash of 1929 triggers what becomes known as the Great
Depression. President Herbert Hoover rejects direct federal relief.<b> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> 1930- June 17 - The Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act is signed by President Herbert Hoover. </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">It's effective rate hikes would slash world trade.</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1930- December 2- In order to combat the growing depression, President
Herbert Hoover asks the U.S. Congress to pass a $150 million public
works project to increase employment and economic activity </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1930- with the Smoot-Hawley act, the US imposes tarriffs on imports which will worsen the effects of the Depression.<br />
-Americans cease to invest in foreign countries or to buy their goods. The post war revival of the European economy stalls.<br />
1931- Reserve Bank of New York raises interest rates in order to stem the outflow of gold and prop up the dollar. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1932- January 22 - The Reconstruction Finance Corporation is established to stimulate banking and
business. Unemployment in 1932 reached twelve million workers.</span></span><br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1932-November 8, 1932 - Democratic challenger Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats
incumbent President Hoover in the presidential election for his first of an unprecedented four terms.</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> The landslide victory, 472 Electoral College votes to 59 for Hoover began the era of FDR that
would lead the nation through the vestiges of the Great Depression and
the ravages of World War II.</span></span></span></span></pre>
<b>1933</b> - President Franklin D Roosevelt launches "New Deal"
recovery programme which includes major public works.<br />
-March 9 - June 16, The New Deal social and economic programs are
passed by the United States Congress is a special one hundred day
session to address depression era economics. The gold
standard
was dropped on April 19 and ratified during the time of this session on
June 5.Sale of alcohol
resumes.<br />
1933- November 1- In South Dakota, a strong dust storm strips topsoil
from depression era farms. It was one in a series of such
storms
to plague the Midwest during 1933 and 1934.<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1934- June 6- The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission is
established with the signing of the Securities Exchange Act into law by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt.</span></span> </span> </span></pre>
1935- August 14- The Social Security Act is passed by Congress as part
of the New Deal legislation and signed into law by President Franklin
D. Roosevelt. It would begin payouts to retirees within two
years. Workers began contributing into the system during the
same
year, at a rate of 2% of the first $3,000 in earnings, half paid by the
employee and half paid by the employer.<br />
1936- November 3, 1936 - Franklin D. Roosevelt overwhelms his Republican
challenger, Alfred Landon, for a second presidential term.
His
Electoral College margin, 523 to 8, and 62% of the popular vote insured
Roosevelt carte blanche in his goals of the New Deal.<br />
<b>1980</b> November - Republican
Party's Ronald Reagan elected president. Reagan goes on to adopt a tough
anti-communist foreign policy and tax-cutting policies which lead to a
large federal budget deficit. <br />
1981- July 29- Tax cut legislation proposed by President Ronald
Reagan, the largest in history, is passed by both houses of the U.S.
Congress. It would reduce taxes by $750 billion over the next
five years.<br />
1982- January 8- The AT&T lawsuit
was settled with the U.S. Justice Department. The agreement
forced the independence of the twenty-two regional Bell System
companies in return for expansion into the prohibited areas of data
processing and equipment sales.<br />
1982- November 5- The highest unemployment rate since 1940 was
recorded at 10.4%. By the end of November, over eleven
million people would be unemployed.<br />
1986-1988- the problem of Insider Trading raises its head in the United States. <br />
1987- October 19, 1987 - The stock market crash known as Black Monday
occurred on the New York Stock Exchange, recording a record 22.6% drop
in one day. Stock markets around the world would mirror the
crash
with drops of their own.<br />
1989- January 6- Economic reports on the previous year
from the Labor Department indicated a growth rate of 3.8%, the largest
in four years and an unemployment rate of 5.3%, a low of fourteen years<br />
<b>1992</b>
- Congress passes North American Free Trade Agreement, or Nafta,
intended to create free-trade bloc among US, Canada and Mexico<br />
1993-
November 20- The Senate Ethics Committee censures California
Senator Alan Cranston for his participation with Charles Keating in the
Savings and Loans scandal. The scandal had begun in the 1980s
due
to a wave of mismanagement, failed speculation, and fraud within the
industry.
By the end of this crisis, almost 800 savings and loans
institutions responsible for real estate, automotive, personal and
business loans in the United States had failed. It would eventually
cost the U.S. government between $125-$150
billion to bail out the failed institutions.<br />
1994- January 1- The North American Free Trade
Agreement
(NAFTA) goes into effect, creating a free trade zone between Canada,
the United States, and Mexico1995- Jan 1- The World Trade Organization (WTO) is
created, replacing the General Agreement on Tarrifs and Trade (GATT)
formed from a series of post-war treaties on trade. The World
Trade Organization is more highly structured than the previous GATT and
counted seventy-six nations among its members in 1995 <br />
1996- December 5- A speech by the Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan
Greenspan suggest that "irrational exuberance" may be causing the
extraordinary runup of stock prices<br />
<br />
1998- May 18- The United States Department of Justice and twenty
states file the anti-trust case, U.S. versus Microsoft. On
November 5, 1999, a preliminary ruling stated that Microsoft had
monopoly power.<br />
1999- March 29- The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above 10,000
for the first time.<br />
2001- the terrorist attacks of 9/11 slow down a recovering market. <br />
THE CRASH OF 2008. <br />
<b>2008</b> September - Turmoil in the
US and international financial markets as major Wall Street investment
bank Lehman Brothers collapses and other big US financial players face
growing troubles as a result of the "credit crunch". With hundreds of
billions of dollars wiped out in bad loans and a prolonged property
slump, the US faces its worst financial crisis since the Great
Depression.<br />
2009- October 31- The economic recession continues to deepen as
jobless claims climb above 10.0%, reaching 10.2% with October's monthly
figures. This occurs despite efforts by the Obama
administration
to ramp up massive government spending pushed by the $780 billion
economic stimulus package passed earlier in the year.<br />
<b>2012 </b>January - President Obama unveils a revised defence strategy
involving budget cuts, but insists US will maintain its military
superiority.<br />
2013- January 1- deadline for the fiscal cliff- in
which huge spending cuts will take place if Republicans and Demcorats
cannot come to an agreement on slashing the budget. The crisis is
narrowly averted by a partial deal on New years' Day.<br />
2013-
February- Democrats and Republicans fail to achieve a deal on further
budget cuts known as sequestrations, with resulting cuts to the military
and entitlements. <br />
<br />
<b>WORLD WAR TWO.</b><br />
<br />
1939- September 5- The United States declares its neutrality in the
European war after Germany invaded Poland, effectively beginning World
War II after a year of European attempts to appease Hitler and the aims
of expansionist Nazi Germany. (Photo below) U.S.
Troops
land on the beach at Normandy, France in 1944. The United
States
ended its neutrality after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December of
1941.<br />
<br />
1940- June 3-
The United States government approves a sale of surplus war material to
Great Britain.<br />
<b> </b><br />
1940- November 5, 1940 - President Franklin D. Roosevelt continues his
dominance of presidential politics with a 449 to 82 Electoral College
victory over Republican candidate Wendell Wilkie, winning his third
presidential election. Roosevelt becomes the first man to
hold
office for three terms.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>1941</b> -
Japanese warplanes attack US fleet at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii; US
declares war on Japan; Germany declares war on US, which thereafter
intervenes on a massive scale in World War II, eventually helping to
defeat Germany.<br />
1942- February 19, 1942 - Executive order 9066
is signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, confining
110,000 Japanese Americans, including 75,000 citizens, on the West
Coast into relocation camps during World War II. The remains
of
the first of these detention camps reside in California's Manzanar
National Historic Site. These camps would last for three
years.<br />
<br />
1942-
December 2- The first nuclear chain reaction is produced at the
University of Chicago in the Manhattan Project, creating fission of the
Uranium U-235, under the direction of physicists Arthur Compton and
Enrico Fermi.<br />
1943- July 10- The United States Army's 45th Infantry Division lands
on the island of Sicily, starting the campaign of Allied invasion into
Ax-s-controlled Europe. Nine days later, Rome is bombed by
Allied
forces. The conquest of Sicily would be completed on August
17
when U.S. forces under General Patton and British forces under Field
Marshall Montgomery arrive.<br />
<br />
1944- June 6- The Normandy Invasion, D-Day, occurs
when one hundred and fifty-five thousand Allied troops, including
American forces and those of eleven other Allied nations (Australia,
Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, and the United Kingdom). Allied
soldiers
stormed the beaches of France to begin the World War II invasion of
Europe that would lead to the liberation of Paris. Operation
Overlord gained footing quickly, pushing through the Atlantic Wall in
the largest amphibious military operation in history.<br />
<br />
1945- May 7, 1945 - The unconditional surrender of Germany at Reims, France
concludes the military engagements of World War II in Europe.
It
is accepted by General Dwight D. Eisenhower in his role as the
commander of Allied troops in the European theater of the war.<br />
1945- August 6- President Harry S. Truman gives the go-ahead
for
the use of the atomic bomb with the bombing of Hiroshima.
Three
days later, the second bomb is dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. On
August 15, Emperor Hirohito of Japan surrenders.<br />
<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="hpUEYq9yysTmQM:" 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" style="height: 183px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -8px; width: 264px;" /> <br />
Hiroshima <br />
<br />
<br />
1951- September 4- The inauguration of trans-continental television
occurs with the broadcast of President Truman's speech at the Japanese
Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco. The treaty would be
signed on September 8 by the U.S., Japan, and forty-seven other nations. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>THE COLD WAR.</b><br />
<br />
1947
- US enunciates policy of aid for nations it deems threatened by
communism in what became known as the Truman Doctrine. Cold War with
Soviet Union begins. <br />
<br />
<b>1948</b> - America's programme to revive
ailing post-war European economies - the Marshall Plan - comes into
force. Some $13bn is disbursed over four years and the plan is regarded
as a success.<br />
1949- October 14- Eleven leaders of the United States Communist party
are convicted of advocating a violent insurrection and overthrow of the
U.S. government. The Supreme Court would uphold the
convictions
on June 4, 1951. <br />
1950-54 - Senator Joseph McCarthy carries
out a crusade against alleged communists in government and public life;
the campaign and its methods become known as McCarthyism. In 1954
McCarthy is formally censured by the Senate. <br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1953- October 30- The Cold War continues in earnest when President Dwight D. Eisenhower approves </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">a top secret document stating that the U.S. nuclear arsenal must be expanded to combat the communist </span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">threat around the world.</span> </pre>
1954- April 22, 1954 - Joseph McCarthy begins televised Senate hearings into
alleged Communist influence in the United States
Army.
Later this year, on December 2, the U.S. Congress votes to condemn
Senator McCarthy for his conduct during the Army investigation hearings.<br />
1959- January 7- The United States recognizes the new Cuban government
under rebel leader Fidel Castro. Castro becomes the Premier
of
Cuba on February 16.<br />
1960- May 1- In the Soviet Union, a United States U-2 reconnaissance
plane is shot done by Soviet forces, leading to the capture of U.S.
pilot Gary Powers and the eventual cancellation of the Paris summit
conference. On August 19, Powers is sentences by the Soviet
Union
to ten years in prison for espionage. On February 10, 1962 ,
he
would be exchanged for a captured Soviet spy in Berlin. <br />
<br />
<b>1961</b> - Bay of Pigs invasion: an unsuccessful attempt to invade Cuba by Cuban exiles, organised and financed by Washington. <br />
1962- February 7- The first sign of a
looming Vietnam conflict emerges when President Kennedy admits that advisors already in Vietnam would engage the enemy if fired
upon. The sending of these advisors acted as a compasspoint of
no return and there was no turning back once they took this crucial step which would inevitably lead
the country into this conflict. Many believe that this daywas the day that step was taken.<br />
<br />
<b>1962</b> -Oct- US compels Soviet Union to withdraw nuclear weapons from Cuba in what has become known as the Cuban missile crisis.<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1963</b> Nov. - President John F Kennedy assassinated; Lyndon Johnson becomes president</span></span><br />
<br />
<b>1964</b>
- US steps up its military intervention in Vietnam. <br />
1965- <big>
</big>
February 7- President Lyndon B. Johnson orders
the continuous bombing of North Vietnam below the 20th parallel.<br />
1966- June 29-
United States warplanes begin their bombing raids of Hanoi and
Haiphong, North Vietnam. By December of this year, the United
States had 385,300 troops stationed in South Vietnam with sixty
thousand additional troops offshore and thirty-three thousand in
Thailand.<br />
1967- June 23- A three day summit between President Lyndon B. Johnson
and Soviet Premier Aleksei Kosygin, held at Glassboro State College in
New Jersey, culminates in a mutual declaration that no crises between
them would lead to war. <br />
<b>1969</b>
- Republican Party candidate Richard Nixon elected president amid
growing public opposition to Vietnam war. US military presence in
Vietnam exceeds 500,000 personnel. <br />
1969- July 25- President Richard M. Nixon announces his new Vietnam
policy, declaring the Nixon Doctrine that expected Asian allies to care
for their own military defense. This policy, and all Vietnam
war
policies, would be heavily protested throughout the remainder of the
year. On November 15, 1969, more than two hundred and fifty
thousand anti-Vietnam war demonstrators marched on Washington, D.C. to
peacefully protest the war.<br />
<b>1972</b> - Nixon re-elected and makes historic visit to China.<br />
1973- January 27- Four part Vietnam peace pacts, the Paris Peace
Accords, were signed in Paris, France. The announcement of
the
military draft ending also occurred on that date. The last
U.S.
military troops would leave the war zone on March 29.<br />
<b>1973</b> - Vietnam ceasefire agreement signed. The campaign had claimed some 58,000 American lives.<br />
1977- January 21- The majority of Vietnam War draft
evaders, ten thousand in number, are pardoned by President Jimmy Carter.<br />
1977-September 21- Fifteen nations, including the United States and
the Soviet Union, sign a nuclear-non-proliferation pact, slowing the spread
of nuclear weapons around the world.<br />
1983-1990- The White House circumvents Congress to prosecute a secretly
funded war against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua.<br />
1983 -
US invades Caribbean nation of Grenada, partly prompted by its concerns
over the island's ties with Cuba. 1983- March 23 - The initial proposal
to develop
technology to intercept incoming missiles, the Strategic Defense
Initiative Program, or Star Wars, is made by President Ronald Reagan.<br />
1985-
November 19- The first meeting in six years between the leaders
of the Soviet Union and the United States occurs when Mikhail Gorbachev
and Ronald Reagan engage in a five hour summit conference in Geneva,
Switzerland.<br />
1986- "Irangate" scandal uncovered, revealing that
proceeds from secret US arms sales to Iran were used illegally to fund
Contra rebels in Nicaragua.<br />
1987- August 12- Near the end of hearings into the
Iran-contra affair, President Reagan admitted to a policy that went
astray, but denied knowledge of the diversion of funds to the contras.<br />
1987- December 8- The United States and the Soviet Union sign an
agreement, the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, to dismantle
all 1,752 U.S. and 859 Soviet missiles in the 300-3,400 mile range.<br />
1988-February 3 - The United States House of
Representatives rejects the request of President Reagan for $36.25
million to fund the Nicaraguan Contras<br />
1989- November 9, 1989 - The Berlin Wall, after thirty-eight years of
restricting traffic between the East and West German sides of the city,
begins to crumble when German citizens are allowed to travel freely
between East and West Germany for the first time. One day
later,
the influx of crowds around and onto the wall begin to dismantle it,
thus ending its existence.<br />
1990- February 7- The
Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party gives up its monopoly
of power, continuing the trend, since the beginning of the Berlin Wall
coming down, that the Cold War was about to end. The ending
of
the Cold War was completed, in many ways, by the strong policies of
U.S. President Ronald Reagan toward the Soviet block. Six
days
later, a plan to reunite Germany was announced. <br />
1992- January 26- The renewed nation of
Russia
and their leader Boris Yeltsin announce that they will stop targeting
the cities of the United States with nuclear weapons. <br />
<br />
<b>THE POST COLD WAR ERA. </b><br />
1997-
July 8- The NATO alliance expands into eastern Europe when it
extends an invitation to the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland to
join the alliance in 1999.<br />
1999 March-June - US
plays leading role in Nato bombardment of Yugoslavia in response to Serb
violence against ethnic Albanians in the province of Kosovo.<b> </b><br />
<b>2002</b>
January - State of the Union address: President George W Bush includes
Iraq, Iran and North Korea in what he describes as an "axis of evil".<br />
2010-US and Russia announce agreement on a new
nuclear arms reduction treaty to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty. The pact was to be signed on 8 April.President
Obama unveils a new defence policy significantly curtailing the
circumstances in which the US would use nuclear weapons<br />
2010-US and Russia announce agreement on a new
nuclear arms reduction treaty to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty. The pact was to be signed on 8 April.President
Obama unveils a new defence policy significantly curtailing the
circumstances in which the US would use nuclear weaponsto date.<br />
<br />
<b>TERRORISM </b><br />
<br />
<b>The Galleanists.</b><br />
<br />
1919-April-June - mail bombs sent to prominent members of
the US government, the FBI and Wall Street by the Galleanists, an
anarchist group; most of the bombs were diffused; a few exploded causing
injuries.<br />
<b>The Weather Underground</b> <br />
1969- The radical student underground group- the
Weathermen (Weather Underground) brings off the Haymarket Police
Memorial bombing in Chicago.<br />
1970- February- The Weathermen: the Park Precinct Police Station bombing.<br />
-Weathermen: molotov cocktail attacks on Jurdge Murtagh, New York City. <br />
1970- March- Weathermen nail bomb explodes prematurely in Greenwich Village apartment.<br />
1970- June- Weathermen explode a bomb at NYC Police headquarters.<br />
1972- May- Weathermen bomb a washroom in the Pentagon.<br />
<b>The Unabomber.</b> <br />
1978-1995-
Ted Kaczinski, "The Unabomber" carries out 23 bombings, mostly by mail,
maiming 23 and killing 3 in defense of his views on presrrving the
environment.<br />
<b>1993 World Trade Center Bombing</b> <br />
1993-
February 26- Islamic terrorists
detonate a massive truck bomb under the World Trade Center,
killing six
people and injuring over 1,000 in an effort to collapse the
towers.<br />
<b>Murrah Building, Oklahoma City</b> <br />
1995 - Oklahoma bomb kills more than 160 people in worst ever
incident of its kind in US. April 19- Anarchists Timothy McVeigh and
Terry Nichols explode a
bomb outside the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City.<br />
<b>The Centennial Olympic Park Bombing.</b> <br />
1996- Eric Rudolph a pro-life, anti-lesbian extremist bombed the Los Angeles Olympics, killing two and maiming 111. <br />
<b>US Africa Embassy Bombings</b> <br />
1998- August 7- Attacks on two United States embassies in Africa, in
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya kills two hundred and
twenty-four and injures four thousand five hundred. The
attacks
are linked to Osama Bin Laden and his Al-Qaeda organization.
On
August 13, the United States launches cruise missile strikes against
Al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan and a suspected chemical plant in the
Sudan.<br />
<b>9/11 Attacks</b> <br />
<b> </b><br />
2001
11 September - Co-ordinated suicide attacks on various high-profile
targets, prompting the US to embark on a ''war on terror'' which
includes the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq.<br />
2001 October - USA Patriot Act approved by the Senate, giving
the government greater powers to detain suspected terrorists, eavesdrop
on communications and counter money-laundering. In November, President
Bush signs a directive to try suspected terrorists in military tribunals
rather than the courts <br />
2002
November - President Bush signs into law a bill creating a Department of
Homeland Security, the biggest reorganisation of federal government in
more than 50 years. The large and powerful department is tasked with
protecting the US against terrorist attacks.<br />
2006 March - Congress renews the USA Patriot Act, a
centrepiece of the government's fight against terrorism, after months of
debate about its impact on civil liberties. The government agrees to
some curbs on information gathering.<br />
2006
May - The only man to be charged over the September 11 attacks,
self-confessed al-Qaeda conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui, is sentenced to
life in jail.<br />
<b>The Times Square Bombing Attempt.</b> <br />
2010- An Islamist Pakistani was arrested attempting to detonate a car bomb in Times Square.<br />
<br />
<b>THE ENVIRONMENT, MAN MADE AND NATURAL DISASTERS.</b><br />
<br />
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1<span style="font-size: small;">871- </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">October 8-11- The great fire of Chicago, in legend started by a
kick from Mrs. O'Leary's cow, although in actuality likely started in
their cowshed by Daniel Sullivan, who first reported the
fire. <span style="font-size: small;"> </span>The fire caused $196 million in damages. It burned
1.2million acres of land, destroyed 17,450 buildings, killed 250 people,
and left 90,000 homeless</span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1906- </span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">April 18-19<span style="font-size: small;">-</span> The San Francisco earthquake was estimated at 7.8 on the Richter
scale. Its proximity to the epicenter of the San Andreas<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>Fault and the subsequent fire that followed </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">the quake and aftershocks<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>left 478 reported death, although estimates in the future peg that
figure at nearly 3,000. Between $350-$400 million in damages<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>were sustained. </span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">1927- April 22- The Great Mississippi Flood occurs, affecting<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>over 700,000. </span></span></pre>
1970- April 22- The first Earth Day celebration is held with millions
of American participating in anti-pollution demonstrations.
These
demonstrations included school children walking to school instead of
riding the bus.<br />
1979- March 28- An accident at the Three Mile Island
nuclear power plant in Middletown, Pennsylvania occurs. when a partial
core meltdown is recorded. A tense situation ensued for five
days
until the reactor was deemed under control. It is
the
largest accident in U.S. nuclear power history and considered the worst
until the Soviet Chernobyl accident seven years later. <br />
1980- May 18- The Mt. St. Helens volcano, in Washington State, erupts,
killing fifty-seven people and economic devastation to the area with
losses near $3 billion. The blast was estimated to have the
power five hundred times greater than the Hiroshima atomic bomb.<br />
1989- March 24- The Exxon Valdez crashed into Bligh Reef in Alaska's
Prince William Sound, causing the largest oil spill in American
history, eleven million gallons, which extended forty-five miles.<br />
<b>2005</b>
August - Hundreds of people are killed when Hurricane Katrina, the most
destructive storm to hit the US in decades, sweeps through gulf coast
states. Much of the city of New Orleans is submerged by flood waters<br />
<b>2010 </b>May-June - Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaster in the Gulf of Mexico causes the United States' biggest oil spill.<br />
<br />
<br />
</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-28384676677421586642013-08-24T12:00:00.000-07:002013-08-29T17:50:09.245-07:00Western Nations Consider Intervention after mass Chemical attack outside Damascus.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN BRIEF: </span>Western humanitarian interests in Syria are the descendant of Western Christian interests in Syria. Russia's geopolitical interest in the region, whether Ottoman or Syrian, remains the same. China, never a power to project force very far abroad, asserts its traditional defense of the status quo and therefore of economic and trading interests in the larger world, meaning leave Syria alone.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria</b><br />
<br />
<b><img src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRKD2gwy0x__af4Bn47zda6ZQbZ83tKWRCEUfMhzttrqOggqsNHEIg84NBw" style="height: 179px; margin-left: -12px; margin-right: -12px; margin-top: 0px; width: 282px;" /> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">
</span><b>IN THE NEWS</b>:AMATEUR FOOTAGE OF MANY VICTIMS DYING FROM WHAT IS EVIDENTLY NERVE GAS, IN A SUBURB OF DAMASCUS, BRING FRENCH AND BRITISH CALLS FOR INTERVENTION BY FORCE- AND DENIAL BY SYRIA AND ITS RUSSIAN SPONSOR THAT THE ASSAD REGIME IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ATTACKS.</div>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW: </b></span><br />
<br />
-Western interests in the Levant were once framed as Christian interests; now they are framed as humanitarian interests. Humanitarianism, it must be remembered is a largely Western idea, with Christian origins, despite the abuses committed in the name of Christianity during the Crusades.<br />
<br />
-Britain and France have maintained an interest in Syria and the Levant for centuries, primarily through trade and the protection of Christian minorities and holy places. Now, since the widespread threat of anti-western, radical Islam in the region, their goal, though vocally humanitarian, is also geopolitical.<br />
<br />
-France is still bound to protect Christian minorities in the region as it has for over three centuries.<br />
<br />
-the United Sates had no significant interest in the region before the creation of the state of Israel. Since the creation of the State of Israel and since the 9/11 attacks on US soil, American interests have become geopolitical as well as humanitarian. <br />
<br />
-Russia's interests in Syria are in some ways the same as their interests in the region in 1800. A stable, secular (read Aalawite or Baathist) Syria is a guarantee of the security of Russia's southwestern borders, its naval access to the Mediterrnean and the protection of Orthodox Christian Christan minorities in the Middle East and the Balkans. <br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">RELEVANT DATES </span>for International Reaction to Syria's Worst Gas Attacks Yet. <br />
<br />
<b>Early European Contact with Syria and the Levant.</b><br />
-1500 (circa) -France joins the Italian city states in trade with the Ottoman Levant.<br />
-1536-
Francis I of France and the sultan, Suleiman I, sign a treaty of
capitulations concerning permanent French trading settlements in the
Levant and Turks trading in France; free trade and freedom of religion
in one another's countries. Right to be tried in court by one's own
consul or nationals. The agreement is renewable upon expiry.<br />
1600- (circa)- -European
powers begin to close in on the Ottoman Empire but they want the sultan
kept in place so that no country can seize any overall advantage.<br />
<br />
<b>France Gains a Foot hold in the Levant through Trade and Religion.</b> <br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1600-1900-
Lebanese tribal chiefs encourage French Catholic missionaries to
develop education in the country. Rome-educated Maronite priests return
to Lebanon and spread western ideas.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1649-
Ottoman Sultan issues a decree allowing France's Louis XIV to protect
the Maronites. French clergy and French-educated Maronite priests begin
to influence political institutions.<br />
<img height="241" id="irc_mi" src="http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histatlas/asmin/otthist2.gif" style="margin-top: 76px;" width="723" /> <br />
1703-1730-
the Ottoman court attempts to adopt the styles of French royalty. Some
Enlightenment ideas begin to filter into the intelligentsia. The first
Arabic printing press. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-18th century. The French form close trade relations with Ottoman Syria.<br />
-1736-
with Ottoman approval, France becomes protector of the Maronite
Christians. The Church of Rome grants the Maronites recognition.</div>
-the coastal area around Beirut and Tyre becomes the most Europeanized part of the Muslim world.<br />
<br />
<b>Russia Takes the Black Sea, Enters the Mediterranean.</b><br />
<br />
-1757-
contrary to the agreement with the French, the the Ottomans agrees to
Russia being the protector of Christians in the Levant.<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt;">1768-1774- Russo-Turkish
War of 1768-1774, Admiral Grigory Spiridov (1713-1790) commanded a naval
squadron.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt;">1770- July- </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt;">Russia defeats Turkey in battles of Chios Strait and
Cesma Bay </span></span><br />
1774- Ottoman forces routed by Russia under Catherine II. <br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">1774- treaty of Kuc.huk Kainarji- Russia
seizes north shore of Black Sea from Ottomans-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>gains control of Black sea and right to protect Orthodox religious sites</span></div>
-Russia
consolidates control over the Black sea and reduces Turkish power in
the Crimean, clearing the way for Crimea’s annexation. This treaty is
seen as the beginning of Ottoman decline.<br />
-the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji also allows Russia to be protector of Greek Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman empire and the Levant.<br />
<span lang="EN-US">1800 (circa) -The Russians blockade of
the Dardanelles Strait facilitated Russia's eventual victory in the war and
fully opened the Mediterranean to the Russian Navy </span><br />
<br />
<b>Westernization via France and Egypt in Syria</b> <br />
<br />
1798-99-
to cut India off from the British, the French, under General Napoleon Bonaparte,
launch an invasion of Egypt and from Egypt to Palestine and Syria,
breaking the rule of the Mamluks. The English destroy the Bonaparte's fleet at Aboukir. Bonaparte is forced back to Egypt. Though their
attempt at domination fails, the French manage to sustain a presence in
the region dating back to the Crusades.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<br />
-1831-1840- Muhammed Ali, Egyptian viceroy to the Ottomans, deals with
rebellions against the Ottomans in Saudi Arabia and in Greece. The
Ottoman Sultan, Mahmoud, having promised him Syria and Palestine as a
reward, reneges. Ali rebels, takes Syria and from Syria occupies
Palestine. He and his son open the area to European influence.<br />
-education
of medical and army personnel in French, English and German and leads
to enlightenment and adoption of western ideas. Western books printed.
When the clergy objected or blocked the reforms, they were ignored or
killed outright. <br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">- through Ali Pasha, France supports
Egyptian Viceroy’s modernization program and invasion of Ottoman Syria to increase its own
protection of Christians and trade interests.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-Mohammed Ali invites the French Jesuits to set up in Lebanon where the Jesuits become protectors of the Maronite Christians.<span lang="EN-US">-Russia supports Ottomans against Ali Pasha
with aim of Carving up Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US"><b>Muslims Turn Against Westernization.</b> </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US">-Muslims
tend to compete for political positions, while entrepreneurship and
progress in commerce is left to Jews, Greeks and Armenians and through
them, the Europeans. Increasingly the Muslim population has contempt for
Christians and their modernizing tendencies.</span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US"><b>France, England and Russia Help Vie for Influence, Helping or Hindering the Ottomans.</b> </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">-Russia supports Ottomans against Ali Pasha
with aim of Carving up Ottoman Empire.</span></span> </span> <br />
<span lang="EN-US">-England supports Ali Pasha at first- but
then supports Ottomans against Russian expansion into the Mediterranean.</span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US"><b>The British Expel Muhammad Ali.</b> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1840-1
-in a bid to stop the center of power in the Middle East moving to
French-supported Egypt, the British invade and expel Muhammed Ali from
Syria and Palestine and the Ottomans reassert control. Nevertheless,
western influence continues to penetrate the area. The allied powers in
Europe, minus France, force Ali to withdraw from Syria to Egypt. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>British-Russian Rivalry in the Eastern Mediterranean</b><br />
-with France sidelined, the British turn to the problem of Russia. <br />
-Britain regards control of the Eastern Mediterranean as crucial to protection of the sea route British India.<br />
-Britain regards any Russian naval presence south of the Black Sea and the Dardanelles as the threat to her Indian empire.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The Civil War of 1840-1861. Ottomans Resent European Protection of Christians.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
-Maronites were considered to be dhimmi, (protected as 'People of the Book' like Jews and Christians) but 2<sup>nd</sup>
class citizens. Prompted by French potection of the Maronites,
Lebanon's Ottoman rulers incite the Druzes to move against the
Maronites.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1840- the stabilizing Maronite-Druze feudal system falls apart. A civil war begins which will last until 1860<br />
<br />
<b>Britain Supports Muslim Druzes against French Protection of Maronites.</b> </div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span></div>
-Britain, meanwhile, allies itself with Druze chieftains in southern Lebanon. <br />
1843-
France and Britain persuade the Sultan to allow French-backed
administration by the Maronites in the north and British-backed Druze
administration by the British in the south.<br />
<br />
-in Lebanon, Maronite Christians, with
French support and European cultural influence begin to challenge the
Druzes. The local Ottoman governor inflames the conflict in hopes that
the groups would destroy one another.<br />
<br />
<b>The Crimean War: FRance and Britain now see Russia as the Greater Danger.</b><br />
-as the civil war in Lebanon continues, Britain considers Turkey to be a barrier against Russian expansion into the Balkans or into the Mediterranean.<b> </b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">1853-1856- -Crimean war: Russia asserts
right to protect Orthodox holy places, occupies Moldavia and Wallachia. France and Britain support Ottomans
against Russia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">-France and Britain
defeat Russia in the 1853-1856 Crimean War. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">-Under the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty, Russia is forced to scrap its Black Sea fleet.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1856
-French and English allies of Turkey pressure the Sultan to adopt
reforms with the “Hatti-Humayun”, a second edict of reform, promoting
tolerance, tax reform, modernization of the role of banks and investment
houses.. However the reforms are mostly ignored by. anti-Christian
Muslims. Officials, enraged by Christian-revolts in the Balkans, evade
all implementation.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-weight: bold;">End of Civil war. Special Status for</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">the Province of Lebanon.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
-1861-
France intervenes and forces the Ottoman sultan to appoint a Christian
governor for Lebanon. As a result the Maronite Christians are awarded a
special enclave, Mount Lebanon.</div>
<br />
-Britain
forces France to withdraw from Lebanon. An international commission
declares it an autonomous region. French influence is sustained,
however, through commerce, trade and religion.<br />
1864-1914-
the Ottoman province of Mount Lebanon retains semi-autonomous status.
But during this period many Lebanese Christians flee Ottoman rule or
internal violence. The links maintained between Lebanese abroad and
those still at home form an important cultural bridge between Lebanon
and Europe<br />
<br />
<b>Russian Provocation in the Balkans.</b><br />
-1870s-
Russia secretly provokes Orthodox Christian nationalist movements in the
Ottoman Balkans. Local rebellions together with the expected repression
by the Sultan are used to justify increased Russian influence and
control in the region and its protection of Orthodox
minorities as well and Russian security.<br />
-1876- Serbia, Bosnia and Montenegro revolt against Ottoman rule. The
Ottomans respond by raping, burning and slaughtering 15,000. Prime
Minister Disraeli, representing British, Victorian civility, expresses
outrage at the Turkish atrocities but is given pause by Russia's
strategic influence in the Orthodox Balkans. The Ottoman Empire, indeed,
is seen a a buffer against Russian ambitions in Europe and, vi the Mediterranean,
against the Russian threat to British India. Disraeli speaks and writes
more or less in defense of Turkey. Liberal leader Gladstone and the
Birtish public express outrage at the Ottoman atrocities and Disraeli's
defense of Turkey.<br />
<br />
-through the Constantinople
Conference and the 'London Protocol' Britain's Disraeli government
attempts, without real success, to nudge the Ottomans into reform and
reconciliation in the Balkans. <br />
1877- Russia, encouraged by the London Protocol, declares war on Turkey on the pretext of defending the Orthodox Balkans. <br />
<br />
<b>The Treaty of San Stefano.</b><br />
<br />
-1878- by the Treaty of
San Stefano, Russia secures territorial gains from the Ottoman Empire
chiefly in the region of Armenia as well the independence of several
Balkan regions and the creation of an over-sized autonomous Orthodox
Bulgarian buffer state. <br />
<br />
1878- the British navy faces down the
Russian fleet in the Dardanelles, halting further Russian aggression in
the Balkans and vindicating the policy of Disraeli.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>The Congress of Berlin.</b><br />
<br />
-1878-
following quickly upon the Treaty of San Stefano, Bizmark calls the
Treaty of Berlin to stem Russian advances on the fringes of the Ottoman
Empire and in the Balkans. As a result, the European powers push back
with a diplomatic offensive securing the autonomy of many areas of the Balkans, the independence of several Balkan nations and the dismantling of Russia's 'Greater Bulgaria."<br />
-1878- French predominance in Lebanon is
recognized by the Berlin Treaty. Lebanese eastern Christians become a
means of French influence in the Levant.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT2OpSnYMXWs_qWllLoSHzqXpzQIzDtCJFCQCawhqGJx5B7AsKv" data-sz="f" name="PLeWg7buBWQYvM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT2OpSnYMXWs_qWllLoSHzqXpzQIzDtCJFCQCawhqGJx5B7AsKv" style="height: 174px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: -1px; width: 290px;" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Russia and The Mediterranean</b><span lang="EN-US"> </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US">-In the 19th and 20th centuries, Russian
expeditions to the Mediterranean Sea tried to undermine British and Turkish
naval superiority. In case of war, Russian squadrons were to attack
British shipping, while avoiding superior enemy forces. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US">-If war breaks out with Turkey, the Russian Black Sea
Fleet would blockade and seize the Bosporus and the
Dardanelles Straits. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<b>End of World War One British and French Mandates.</b><br />
1920 June - By the Treaty of Sevres, the San Remo conference splits up King Feisal's
newly-created Arab kingdom by placing Syria-Lebanon under a French
mandate, and Palestine under British control.<br />
1920 August - France proclaims a new state of Greater Lebanon. </div>
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><b>Decolonization.</b></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US">1945-1946 -Lebanon and Syria become independent. Last French troops leave Syria. <b> </b> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Israeli War of Independence- Birth of the State of Israel.</span><br />
<br />
1948-49-
Jordan, Syria and Egypt attack the new state of Israel. Israel
successfully holds them off. Under the terms of UN armistice lines,
Israel rules the northwestern Palestinian territory on the Lebanese
border in the north and the southwest Palestinian area long the Sinai
border as well as a large central area around the West Bank. Eastern
Palestine is ruled by Jordan as the West Bank. Gaza, a sliver of coastal
territory unconquered by Israel, goes to Egypt. Israel controls all of
Jerusalem west of the Ramallah-Bethlehem highway. Jordan rules the
reimaining sliver of Jerusalem east of the highway.<br />
-the birth of the State of Israel brings American influence to the region, much as the British, Russian and French protection of Christian minorities had brought European powers to the region.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>The Cold War Eastern Mediterranean</b><br />
<b>-</b>the Cold War does little change 19th century alignments. Britain, France and the US remain aligned against Russian influence in the Mideast; and against those Arab states that threaten Israel and lean toward the Soviet Union.. <b> </b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">-however, "International strategies changed with the
advent of long-range missiles, nuclear weapons and aircraft carriers. After
World War II, Soviet naval squadrons stationed in the Mediterranean Sea were
ordered to pin down and destroy NATO carriers and strategic missile submarines
in case of a hypothetical conflict, thereby preventing them from hitting
targets in the U.S.S.R.." -Rusnavy</span> </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">-1955- Baghdad pact- Iraq, Turkey, Iran
and Pakistan in alliance with US and British against against Soviet
Union and its Middle Eastern clients like Syria and Egypt.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US">-mid- 1950s- fear of
Iraq and the Baghdad Pact as well as fear of the alternative, Nasser’s
proposed United Arab Republic (union of Syria and Egypt)- causes Syria to turn to Soviet union
for support.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Russia and the Cold War Mediterranean. </b> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-size: small;">-“Russia saw a strategic
advantage for itself in the the ports of the Syrian coastline between Lebanon
and Turkey; a large naval base there would give it an unprecedented foothold in
the eastern Mediterranean, one that would enable its fleet to begin to act as a
counterbalance to the considerable United States and NATO military presence in
the area.” Thomas
Kiernan, THE ARAB</span>S.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">-1967 War won by Israel against Syria, Jordan and Egypt. The Soviet union “greatly
expanded its Mediterranean fleet and acquired special privileges for its naval
operations in several Arab ports. The buildup of Soviet strength in the area
was in reality, not an 'intrusion' but a forceful reassertion of centuries-old
Russian interests in an area considered vital to Russian security and commerce.
As seen from the West, the Soviet buildup threatened the eastern wing of NATO and
was evidence if growing militancy.” Don Peretz, THE MIDDLE EAST TODAY. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<b>The Lebanese Civil War.</b><br />
1974-<b> </b>the Lebanese Civil War (1974-1990) ignited, as did the civil war of 1840-1861- between Christian and Muslim militias. European and American forces were present to protect continuing European interests and American Interests.<br />
1983- Oct.
23- -Multinational Peace Troops suffer simultaneous bomb attacks,
killing 230 US marines in a marine barracks and 58 French paratroopers.
Hezbollah militant Imad Mughaniyah is suspected in the blast that killed
the 230 marines.<br />
1985-Beirut CIA station chief William Buckley is kidnapped and murdered. Imad Mughaniyeh is suspected.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
-mid 1980s- various
militias begin taking westerners hostage. Islamic Jihad kidnaps western
academics and journalists in an attempt to free 17 Hezbollah members
imprisoned in Kuwait. When attempts to force the release of the 17
failed, Imad Mughaniyah apparently arranged the kidnapping of British
Anglican peace envoy, Terry Anderson.</div>
<br />
<b>The Post Cold War Period.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">-"Although tensions have relaxed since the
Cold War, and though the United States has scaled down its naval presence in
the Mediterranean Sea, this theater of war linking Europe, Asia and Africa
retains its key importance." -Rusnavy<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<b></b></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><b>
</b></span>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><b>-</b>in the post-Cold War period, Russia continued to value greater access through the Black sea
and Mediterranean to fellow Slavs in the Balkans. Russia’s rejection of Western
humanitarian intervention in Kosovo was also a geopolitical position. <b> </b></span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><b>9/11 and Sunni and Shia Militant Islam.</b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></div>
<b>
</b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">1990--present -since the rise of Sunni and Shia findamentalism, religiously inspired attacks on the West, and the danger that failed states throughout the Middle East will provide a home for sectarian terror, Western nations find themselves drawn back into regional conflicts from which they thought they had been free since decolonization.</span></span>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: small;"><b>IN HISTORY:</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">MORE CONTENTS: SCROLL DOWN FOR:</span> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">CURRENT EVENTS: CIVIL WAR- 2011--PRESENT</span></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">SYRIA-LEBANON: 1989-2010. </span></span><br />
<b>SYRIA-LEBANON: 1945-1989</b><br />
<b>SYRIA-LEBANON: 1850-1945</b><br />
<b>SYRIA-LEBANON: 1500-1850. </b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">
</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF SYRIA LEBANON</span></span><br />
<br />
<u><b>THE SYRIAN CIVIL WAR TO JANUARY, 2013.</b></u><br />
<br />
<b> The Uprising is Neither Regional Nor Sectarian.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2011. Encouraged, perhaps, by the success of revolutions in Libya and Egypt, citizens of Daraa,</b> in southwestern<b> </b>Syria embarks upon <b>a January "Day of Rage"</b>,
demanding the release of political prisoners. Further protests are met
with gunfire and deaths at the hands of the Security forces. President
Assad makes token promises of reform while hinting that the public
anger has been in cited by Israel. Beneath this upsurge of violence lies
a simple, sinister fact. Assad's liberalizing of the economy over the
previous decades, instead of enriching the nation, has concentrated
wealth in the hands of the Aalawite elite, his co-religionists and
cronies, but also among the Sunni business business class which has
remained loyal to the regime. The so-called economic reforms have
enriched the Alawites and business class and caused serious
impoverishment of the highly populated rural areas as poor people of
all religious sects crowded into the slums that ring the cities of the
economic western corridor- a belt that runs from Aleppo in the north,
though Idlib, Hama and Homs down to Damascus in the south. Instead of
recognizing his country for the economic tinderbox that it is, Assad
blames Israel and sectarian elements for causing trouble. In the
impoverished north, there has already been at least one self-immolation
like the one in Tunisia which set off the entire Arab Spring.<br />
<br />
<b>In Lebanon, meanwhile, Shia Hezbollah gains a majority of seats in cabinet</b>,
making it next to impossible for the UN Tribunal on the 2005 murder of
Sunni Prime Minister Rafik Hariri to commit Hezbollah suspects for
trial.<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<b>The International Community Puts Pressure on Syria.</b><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: left;">
<b>In Syria, throughout April and May the protests, which are neither tribal nor regional nor sectarian</b>,
but entirely a response to economic hopelessness and political
repression, begin to spread acrossthe country. The Assad government,
perhaps mindful of the the other Arab revolutions and the amorphous and
intractable state into which it has allowed the country to fall,
insists that Sunni radials or"Salafists" are behind the trouble and
meets the protests with military force, killing more peaceful
demonstrators every day. Provoking further rage, Assad has set off on a
path of no return.</div>
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<td style="padding: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><b>In summer, 2011, As the US and the European union tighten sanctions on Syria</b>,
Assad decides to make a few gestures toward reform, calling it a
"national dialogue." Meanwhile a nominal Syrian Opposition begins to
emerge, holding its first significant meeting in Istanbul. The goal is
to put forward a national opposition leadership and gain international
recognition. Protests spread amid signs
that the conflict is overflowing Syria's borders and threatening to draw
in the region as Sunni-Alawite clashes explode in Lebanon.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
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<br />
<b>As the summer progresses, the US and other Western and Arab nations use sanctions to pressure </b>Assad to step down as the UN reports floods of refugees leaving Syria for neighbouring countries.<b> </b>In
the fall, just as the Arab League expels Syria from membership, Russia
and China, block a UN resolution condemning government atrocities.<br />
<br />
<b>In winter, 2011-2012, Syria allows Arab League observers </b>to
monitor the conflict as giant suicide bombs explode near military
installations in Damascus. The Opposition denies responsibility and
suggests the government is trying to start a sectarian war. Both sides
will point to each other as instigators of the sectarian war that
everyone fears.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<b> Russia and China Block Intervention in Syria in the UN.</b><br />
<br />
<b>Russia and China block another UN resolution on Syria</b>
amid increasing government violence as it retakes Homs in March killing
scores including children in reprisal. Immense terrorist bombings begin
to point to Al Qaeda. Meanwhile, Arab observers, immobilized by the
violence, begin to arrange support for the opposition. The government
continues it attacks on peaceful demonstrations at "protest hubs" in
cities like Idlib, Hama, Homs and Deraa, that string the western
corridor. <br />
<br />
<b>In March and April 2012, UN envoy Kofi Annan proposes a ceasefire</b>
that might allow the beginnings of dialogue. Russia and China support
the plan but only after weakening its stipulations. But violence
continues as the government steps up its offenses and the opposition
responds as the deadline approaches. Annan's ceasefire deadline comes
and goes in early April leaving the ceasefire in tatters. The government
forges ahead using heavy weaponry and perpetrates another massacre at
Hula.<br />
<br />
<b>The Red Cross has already declared the Syrian conflict a civil war. Violence spills over into Lebanon in mid-May</b>
as anti-Assad Sunnis in Tripoli and Kobbe lash with local supporters of
the Syrian regime while a Lebanese critic of the Assad regime was
arrested, setting of more clashes and hinting that Hezbollah government
authorities might be putting their weight behind their longt-time Syrian
ally.<br />
<br />
<b>The war internationalizes with the onset of summer</b>, <b>2012</b>,
as a Turkish jet in Syrian airspace is shot down by Syria and Western
diplomats pull their ambassadors from embassies in Damascus. Turkey
meanwhile sharpens its rules of engagement, threatening to attack any
Syrian incursion on its border. Syria is increasingly beleaguered as
high level defections from the Assad regime combine with President
Obama's warning of serious measures of Syria uses its alleged stores of
chemical weapons. As UN observers pull out of Syria citing the
increasing violence, Lakdar Brahimi becomes the new UN peace envoy.<br />
<br />
<b>The rebel Syrian Free Army Begins to Make Progress around Aleppo</b><br />
<br />
<b>At summer's end, the free Syrian army and other rebel groups</b>
make headway in fighting in Damascus and Aleppo, both cities being key
to the regime's survival. Meanwhile border tensions arise again between
Syria and Turkey with both countries banning each other from using their
airports after Turkey discovers Russian weaponry on a Syrian aircraft
stopping over in Istanbul.<br />
<br />
<b>Instability further threatens Lebanon in October</b>
with the assassination of security chief General Wissam al-Hassan, who
had supplied logistical support for the Syrian rebels, setting off
clashes between Sunnis and Lebanese supporters of the Assad regime-most
probably the Shia Hezbollah party.<br />
<br />
<b>Syrian Opposition Groups Unite to get Western Support.</b> <br />
<br />
<b>In November,2012, just as the press reports summary executions of prisoners by the Free Syrians Army,</b>
Syrian opposition groups meeting in Qatar declare themselves united and
form the Syrian National Coalition for Opposition
and Revolutionary Forces, making themselves more eligible for funding
and weapons from outside Syria. Ominously, sectarian militia groups
like the Al Qaeda backed Al Nusra refuse membership.<br />
<br />
<b>Upsurges of Violence continue in </b>L<b>ebanon </b>as
alignments in the Syrian civil war begin to be taken up in multi ethnic
Lebanon. Sunni militants clash with the huge Shia militia,
Hezbollah,and Syria planes kill volunteers attempting to cross the
border from Lebanon into Syria. But Lebanese soldiers also clash with<br />
Syrian rebels in the border area.<br />
<br />
<b>Syria Discovered to have Chemical Weapons.</b> <br />
<br />
<b>In December, the US warns Syria about its apparent possession of chemical weapons </b>and
hints at direct intervention is Syria uses them. As fighting continues
to spread to rebel positions along the Turkish border, Turkey warns
Syria to stay clear and gets a commitment from NATO to place patriot
missiles along its frontier with Turkey. Fighting between pro and anti
Syria factions on the Lebanese border threaten once again to bring
Lebanon into the conflict<br />
<br />
<b>As US intelligence detects the actual presence of chemical weapons stockpiles in Syria,</b>
internatiomal pressure is placed on Russia and China to prevent Syria
from using them. As rebels continue to fight for Aleppo, Russian envoy
Serge Lavrov, UN envoy Lakdar Barahimi and the Syrian Foreign Minister
all report that Assad had no intentions of stepping down. Indeed, Assad
accuses Islamist sectarian fighters of destroying he company. On this
sole point of agreement, perhaps, the US declares Al Qaeda's Syrian Al
Nusra Front a terrorist organization. Meanwhile, Washington joins an
increasing number of countries recognizing the official Syrian
Oppositiion. <br />
<br />
<b>On Jan. 6, 2013, In a theatre, President Assad addresses Syrian faithful,</b>
or perhaps a captive audience, rallying supporter to the cause,
attributing the war to Islamist extremists and refusing to stop fighting
until victory is achieved. Meanwhile, US and Russia officials hold
talks on building a transitional givernment but the talks are not
substantive.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>In mid-January, the international dimensions of the conflict are once again prominent</b>
with the Syria Opposition meeting in Istanbul to consider a prime
minister for a transitional government while the US and Russia hold
their own talks on shape a new government might take place. And all of
this in the shadow of massive Russian naval exercises off the coast of
Syria which some suggest have the joint purpose of giving moral support
to President Assad, evacuating Russian personnel from Syria and
projecting Russian power into the region over fears of the collapse of
its greatest middle eastern client.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">EVENTS IN SYRIA- 1989-2010<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span> </span>With the Taif Accords of 1989, the Lebanese civil war, which had
been raging since 1973, ended. Throughout the 1990s, Sunni-Christian
domination of the government was confirmed but with reduced
participation of Christians. Both Syria and Israel, who had repeatedly
occupied Lebanon during the civil war, ceased hostilities. While Syria
continued its occupation, Israel finally withdrew. The nationalist Sunni
Prime Minister, Rafik Hariri, rebuilt much of the war-torn country but
after he refused any extension of pro-Syrian president, Emile Lahoud's
constitutional time limit, Syria delivered a veiled threat. On
February 14, 2005. Hariri was assassinated, much of the evidence
pointing to Syria. International pressure then forced Syria's final and
full withdrawal from Lebanon. Periodic violence accompanied efforts by
the UN and the international community to set up a tribunal to bring
pro-Syrian Lebanese suspects to justice. After the election of a
pro-western Sunni-Christian government headed by Prime Minister Siniora
(a Sunni), Lebanon began once again to fall into pro-Syria and
anti-Syria factions, 'anti- Syria' Siniora sharing power with the
'pro-Syria (albeit Christian) President Lahoud. In 2005-2007, anti-Syria
politicians were frequently assassinated. The hand of Syria was widely
suspected. After Hezbollah fought Israel's summer, 2006 invasion of
Lebanon to a stand-off, the Shia Party's prestige increased vastly. In
the fall, Lebanon's leaders ignored Hezbollah's demonstrations for a
greater share in government and its demands for the governemnt to resign
in favour of elections which would reflect Hezbollah'a increased
power. The Shia party also insisted on two-thirds of the seats in
cabinet as well as the power of veto. In support of Hezbollah's
demands, Michel Aoun, a Maronite Christian who once led the fight to
drive Syria from Lebanon, led his party into a pro-Syrian alliance with
Hezbollah. Hezbollah opposed all criticism of Syria and in December,
2006, pulled its strong representation from Siniora's cabinet,
protesting his refusal to give them the veto. Recent acts of terrorism
and street clashes raised fears that Syria was trying to provoke a
civil war in order to reestablish control over Lebanon.<br />
<br />
French president Chirac, due to personal and poltiical ties to the late
Sunni Prime Minister Hariri, had given partisan support to the
anti-Syria March 14th Coalition led by Hariri's son, Saad. Charic's
support of Hariri's legacys was pleasing to Washington. But after
President Sarkozy succeeded Chirac, Washington was guarded about
Sarkozy's non-partisan decision, in the spring of 2007, to hold
all-party peace talks at St. Cloud. In Washington's view Sarkozy was
playing into the hands of the Lebanese anti-Syria opposition's demands
for a "unity government." In a June, 2007 meeting at the Elysee Palace
Sarkozy met with Lebanon's Prime Minister Fouad Siniora. Although
Siniora had accepted French foreign minister Bernard Kouchner's offer
to host all-party peace talks on Lebanon, Siniora was fully satisfied
that France's new government would not be neutral but would fully back
his beleaguered government against the pro Syrian alliance of which the
militant Shia party, Hezbollah, is a part.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
<br />
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
In August, 2007,
Aoun's anti-Syria party made further inroads against the government in
by-elections. With pro-and anti-Syrian factions in parliament unable to
agree on a way of choosing a president to replace outgoing President
Lahoud, presidential elections were postponed until October 23, 2008.
Meanwhile Hezbollah boycotted the legislature along with its existing
cabinet posts. October 23 came and went as Lebanon descended into a
political morass, without a president. In December, the army's
celebrated neutrality was threatened when Francois Al Hajj, a candidate
for commander-in-chief was killed by a car bomb. A Damascus Arab
League summit in March tried but failed to break the stalemate in
Lebanon. In spring, 2008, the new army chief and presidential hopeful
Michel Suleiman threatened to resign if the party didn't agree on a
president by summer. The tensions, which have mounted since the murder
of anti-Syrian president Rafiq Hariri in February, 2005, broke when the
government attempted to close down Hezbollah's telecommunications
network. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nazrallah called it a declaration of
war. However, the fighting ended when the government agreed to leave
Hezbollah's telecommunications intact. On May 25, 2008,Parliament
finally elected former army chief Michel Suleiman as president. Three
days later, Fouad Seniora was re-appointed prime minister by Suleiman.
On July 11 Seniora formed a unity government and the following day,
France's President Sarkozy brokered an agreement by which Syria and
Lebanon would restore diplomatic relations.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12pt;">
<br />
<b>Prospects for reconciliation received a setback in March 2009</b>,
when the International CriminalTribunal, having tried tried the four
Lebanese generals suspected in the 2005 Hariri Assassination, acquitted
them for lack of evidence. Moreover, in May, US Vice President Biden's
visit to Lebanon before elections in June was seen by Hezbollah as
political interference. The elections, the following month, produced a
victory for Prime-Minister designate Saad Hariri's March 14 Party, an
alliance formed around his his father's assassination, implicitly
opposing the defeated pro-Syrian Hezbollah party and its backer, Syria.<br />
<br />
<b>Al Qaeda, which has an interest in continuing instability in Lebanon</b>
had infiltrated fighters in the south before ten were arrested by the
Lebanese army. Instability continued as Saad Hariri failed to achieve
agreement in the allocation of cabinet posts as he attempted to form a
government.<br />
<br />
<b>Meanwhile, Iraq and Syria cut off diplomatic relations</b> after
Iraq linked Syria with a string of bombings in Baghdad. By September,
Prirme Minister Saad Hariri had still not been able to form a
government through ethnic allocation of cabinet posts. Border unrest
flared the following month with south Lebanese militants exchanging
rocket and artillery barrages with<b> </b>Israel on October 27. In early
November the border tension gained a maritime aspect when Israeli
commandos intercepted a ship carrying 600 tons of arms from Egypt to
Hezbollah (according to Israel) in South Lebanon.<br />
<br />
<b>Finally, on November 7, Prime Minister Saad Hariri announces the formation of a unity government</b>
five months after the victory of his March 14 Party. A period of
conciliation follows, the new cabinet ruling that Hezbollah could
remain armed with its considerable arsenal and Hariri traveling to
Damascus for what he described as productive talks with Syria. Relations
seem warmer yet as Washington restores its ambassador to Damascus in
February, 2010 after a five year chill when relations were broken
because of presumed Syrian implication in the assassination of Saad
Hariri's father, President Hariri.<br />
<br />
<b>2010- Tensions resume, however, as an Israeli cabinet minister </b>remarks in February 2010 that another war with Lebanon remains likely before Prime Minister Netenyahu<b> </b>distances
himself from the comments. The rough patch continues as the US
reprimands Syria upon hearing that Damascus supplied weapons to
Hezbollah with Prime Minister Hariri moving, perhaps surpsingly, to
Syria's defence. Implying that its suspicions are confirmed, the US hits
Syria with sanctions in April accusing it of seeking weapons of mass
destruction and arming terror groups in violation of UN resolutions.<br />
<br />
<b>In July Lebanon's revered Shia cleric Hussein Fadlallah dies. </b>Syria
and Iran, meanwhile deny US accsusations that Iran has supplied Syria
with radar that can interfere with Israeli capabiliy of overflight in
the event of a mission to destroy Iranian reactors. In August a skirmish
between south Lebanese militants and Israelis on Lebanon's southern
border leaves a few dead on each side and in September, Syria and Iraq
restore diplomatic relations broken a year before.<br />
<br /></div>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2010: Syria and Iraq retires diplomatic relations</span>
in September after a one year standoff., restoring what some have
called "the Shiite Crescent" of Shia nations or Shia governments from
Iran to Syria. But elsewhere Syria's prestige is threatened as it fails
to arrest witnesses in the Hariri case for perjury in October. The UN
tribunal decides Syria has no legal authority over witnesses who are
Lebanese and on Lebanese soil.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>An October visit to Lebanon by Iranian Preident Ahmedinijad </b>reinforces
regional Shia solidarity as Shia Hezbollah leader Nasralla stages a
mass rally against the UN Tribunal investigating the Hariri
assassination and claims that the tribunal is backed by Israel.
Meanwhile reports of Hezbollah's immense arsenal of rockets and other
weapon raised fer of all-out war between Syria, Israel and Iran.<br />
<br />
<b>The year closed as</b> <b>President Obama</b> ended a diplomatic standoff by appointing a US ambassador to Syria.</div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>EVENTS IN SYRIA LEBANON, 1945-1989 </b> Since 1945,
France has maintained interests in Lebanon and and tried with the UN, the US
and Britain With the simultaneous creation of the state of Israel, Lebanon took in
thousands of Palestinian refugees. The presence of radicalized
Palestinians, Egyptian President Nasser's pan Arabism and the prospect
of a union of Egypt and Syria, galvanized Lebanese Arabs, while upper
class Sunnis and Christians looked toward Europe for support.
Throughout, the government tried to steer a middle course. The further
radicalization of the Palestinian refugees and the entry of PLO units
into Lebanon as a result of Israel's 1967 war only raised tensions. Soon
the PLO was using Lebanon as a base from which to launch attacks into
Israel. By the early 1970s, the battle lines were drawn: clannish
Maronite Christians and the Sunni upper class who together controlled
the government, were opposed by anti-government Shia and Druze Muslim
militants supported by units of the PLO. By 1975, full scale civil war
had broken out with Shia muslims fighting Christian minority rule. In
1979-1982, Israel invaded twice to prop up the Christian government and
to drive out the PLO. In the second invasion, in 1982, Israel made way
for its allies, the Christian Falangists, to massacre Palestinians in
the Shabra and Shatila refugee camps in West Beirut.<b> Syria intervened</b>
throughout the 1980s and the 1990s, ostensibly to restore order but with
ulterior motives of drawing Lebanon back under Syrian control and what
Damascus saw as the restoration of a historical Greater Syria. The war
began to end in 1989, with the Taif Accords which reduced the share of
the dominant Christians in the government. LATER to act as a peace broker during Lebanon's civil war.
Like other western powers, France kept its eye on the welfare of Christians in the region during the turublent years
of the 1970s and 1980s. In 1983, a French military force was withdrawn
from Lebanon after its barracks were bombed by Hezbollah. With the
election of French president Sarkozy, Washington became nervous that
France's traditional support of the pro western government and Prime Minister Harir'si
March 14 Coalition might weaken and that Sarkozy's attempt at
peacemaking might not be as non-partisan as it appears<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span>
<b>EVENTS IN LEBANON SYRIA, 1850-1945 </b>By the mid-19th century a
Druze-Maronite civil war
had ingited, not to end until 1860. The war concluded with an
international agreement making Lebanon an autonomous region and
providing it with a multi-ethnic adminstrative council or Majlis. In
1861,France helped pressure
the Ottoman sultan to create a Sanjak or Christian-governed autonomous
region in Lebanon and form a Majlis or multi-ethnic administrative
council which included Maronites, Sunnis, Druzes and Shia. By the Berlin
Treaty in 1878, however, French interests in Lebanon were confirmed
and protection of the Maronites became the means by which France
furthered its influence. Until World War I, ethnic strife continued and
many Lebanese Christians moved to Europe; but by retaining ties in
Lebanon, they only strengthened the European presence there. Otherwise,
an
uneasy peace was maintained until Wolrd War I. In 1919,
in the post World War I settlement, Washington's King-Crane Commission
decided that close Maronite ties with France were inevitable while the
Muslim majority wanted Lebanon to remain part of Syria. As a result,
King-Crane recommended maintaining the compromise of an autonomous
Lebanese province within a larger Syrian State. But with the treaty of
Sevres in 1919, Israel-Jordan fell under British mandate. At the same
time,
Greater Syria, which included Lebanon fell under French mandate. The
European powers promised that territorial divisions which for example,
separated Lebanon from Syria, would only be temporary. The French,
however, increased the size of Lebanon so that it ended up containing
more Muslims. After Muslims rebelled in 1925-26, demanding more power,
France adopted the "Communal System" of ethnic representation copied
from its own Republic, determining that the Prime Minister would be a
Sunni, the President a Maronite and the speaker a Shia. It also fixed
the proportion of Christians to Muslims in the assembly at 6 to 5. This
formula, balancing power toward the Christians, would remain more or
less in place until the present day and remains a source of
dissatisfaction with Shia Muslims who may now be in the majority.<br />
Western relations with the region were not helped when France brutally
suppressed several rebellions in Syria during the 1930s. At the same
time, imported French Fascist ideas took root among Maronite Christians
like Phalange militia leader Pierre Gemayyel. European promises never
to divide up Syria permanently were broken. Syria, meanwhile, tried to form its own secular democratic government against the
French mandate but French repression only radicalized Islamist groups,
giving then power. .
During Wolrd War II, Vichy France provided a Fascist influence, chiefly
among Lebanese Maronites. In 1945, France granted
Lebanon its independence leaving many Maronites feeling they were
really a European enclave facing what would soon become a tide of Pan
Arab nationalism. Syria gained its independence the following year.<br />
.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span> <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>EVENTS IN SYRIA LEBANON: 1500- 1850</b>- Though the Crusades ha ended in failure, they brought the Levantine coast
to the attention of Europe and trade developed first with Venice and
Genoa and then with France. As the Levant and Middle East fell under
Ottoman rule, Europe retained a concern with protecting the holy places
of Palestine along with Christian minorities, chiefly in Lebanon. In
1580, Pope Gregory XIII founded a seminary in Rome to train Lebanese
Maronite Christians for the clergy. France gained its foothold in
Lebanon through trade and through the education and protection of the
Maronite Christian minority. Over the next three centuries,
Lebanese Maronites encouraged French Catholic missionaries to develop
French, Christian western-style educational institutions in Lebanon. In
1649, the Ottoman Sultan accepted France's Louis XIV as protector of
Christians in Lebanon and thenceforward, French education and culture
influenced Lebanese political institutions.In the eighteenth century, rivalry in
Lebanon grew between Britain and France, both of whom made trade
agreements with the Ottoman Sultan- but the extensive reach of Jesuit
and other Catholic religious and educational institutions inside Lebanon
guaranteed a strong French infleunce. Throughout the 18th century,
France pursued its political, commercial and religious interests in
Lebanon. The coastal region of Beirut and Tyre became the most
Europeanized area of the Middle East. Soon the western powers each had a
religious group to protect. France protected the Maronites, Russia the
Armenian and Greek Orthodox, Britain the Druzes and the Jews.
Sectarian divisions deepened as the respective powers maintained
diplomatic relations with each group.By the 19th century, the
consequent empowerment of Lebanese Christians began to chafe on the
Druze Muslims of the interior. In 1831, the Sultan's viceroy of Egypt,
Muhammed Ali, rebelled against Constantinople, invaded Palestine and
took Syria. He and his son, Ibrahim proceeded to bring Europeanizing
reforms to Syria and Lebanon, facilitating the entry of European
missions and increasing support and tolerance for the Christians,
angering Lebanon's Muslims. The British soon threw the Egyptians out of
Syria but ethnic strife had already begun. As Druze bridled against French-backed Maronite power, they obtained the backing
of the British <br />
<br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-87094166236841686292013-08-23T14:35:00.001-07:002013-08-23T16:40:35.081-07:00Widespread use of Poison Gas outside Damascus. <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world.</span></i><br />
<br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">War Crimes and Human Rights.</span><i><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></i><br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQBaMvXHeF51sWEm2l1Nfa3oAEwQqCjXfQvL6b7TEyf6KU_-JE2YA" data-sz="f" name="Fnk1ZlPjssHDPM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQBaMvXHeF51sWEm2l1Nfa3oAEwQqCjXfQvL6b7TEyf6KU_-JE2YA" style="height: 188px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 268px;" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN BRIEF: </span>The use of poison gas has been outlawed as a weapon of war because of the agonies of those who survive it and the slow and painful death of those who do not. In history, some antagonists have avoided using poison gas for fear the enemy would retaliate in kind. Not unlike the nuclear deterrent.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">IN THE NEWS:</span> NERVE GAS IS BELIEVED TO HAVE KILLED OVER A HUNDRED, MANY OF THEM CHILDREN ON WEDNESDAY IN A SUBURB OUTSIDE DAMASCUS, ACCORDING TO NUMEROUS AMATEUR VIDEOS. EXPERTS BELIEVE THE VIDEOS WOULD BE DIFFICULT IF NOT IMPOSSIBLE TO FAKE. SO FAR THE ASSAD REGIME HAS REFUSED ACCESS TO THE AREA FOR U.N. INSPECTORS. THOUGH EVIDENCE POINTS TO THE SYRIAN GOVERNMENT, RUSSIA IS CLAIMING THE ATTACK WAS CARRIED OUT BY THE OPPOSITION REBELS AND HAS URGED DAMASCUS TO OPEN THE SITE TO UN INSPECTORS.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>THE FACTS: </b></span><br />
<br />
-in 1993 the UN outlawed the use of the nerve agent, Sarin gas.<br />
<br />
in late 2002 and early 2003, as the U.S, looked for pretexts for the invasion of Iraq, UN weapons inspectors found no evidence that Iraq was
in possession of any weapons of mass destruction, including bacterial
and nerve agents. The Bush administration, under the instruction
of Vice President Dick Cheney began to fabricate the evidence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq that
would persuade Congress to approve the invasion. <br />
<br />
-there is little comparison between Iraq in 2002-2003 and the present situation, since the evidence of the use of poison gas in Syria has been found to be genuine.<br />
<br />
-evidence for the use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war, most likely a nerve gas like Sarin, was first claimed by Israel on April 24, 2013, indicating attacks in March near Aleppo and Damascus.<br />
<br />
-evidence generally agreed to be conclusive and attributed to the Assad regime emerged with over 100 victims of a gas attack on June 13.<br />
<br />
-the "red line" of chemical warfare having been passed, western powers including the United States and the European Union agreed to begin arming the the rebels, but so far that does not seem to have transpired.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><b>IN HISTORY:</b></span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br />
<b>1,000 BC- Use of arsenical smokes</b> in warfare were known to the Chinese.<br />
<br />
<b>672-1300- </b>Greek fire, a burning liquid, fired as an incendiary device and compared to modern napalm was originated by the Byzantines but used well into the middle ages. <br />
<br />
<b>1500- </b>(circa) <b>The use of poison gas,</b> occasionally employed in ancient and medieval times before dying out, is reintroduced, in limited form, during the Italian Renaissance.<br />
<br />
<b>1899- The Hague Conference</b>- it was obvious that weapons of
chemical warfare had already been developed during the 19th century: "A
general concern over the use of poison gas manifested itself in 1899 at
the Hague Conference with a proposal prohibiting shells filled with
asphyxiating gas. The
proposal was passed, despite a single dissenting vote from the United
States. The American representative,
justified voting against the measure on the grounds that 'the
inventiveness of Americans should not be restricted in the development
of new weapons.'- Wikipedia<br />
<br />
<b>1914-1918- Use of poisons as weapons</b> -All major belligerents used poisonous gasses against enemy personnel in combat.<br />
<br />
<b>1938- Sarin gas discovered</b> in Wuppertal-Elberfeld in Germany by two German scientists attempting to create stronger pesticides.<br />
<br />
<b>1987-1988- Iraq, Halabja Massacre- Saddam Hussein</b> used poison
gas against Kurdish resistance first gassing the population ol Halabja.
"By 1988, some 4,000 villages had been destroyed, an estimated 180,000
Kurds had been killed and some 1.5 million had been deported." <br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">RELEVANT DATES</span> for August, 2013 nervea gas attack near Damascus, Syria. <br />
<br />
<b>1,000 BC- Use of arsenical smokes</b> in warfare were known to the Chinese. <br />
<br />
<b>1500 AD- The use of poison gas,</b> not employed since ancient and medieval times, is reintroduced, in limited form, during the Italian Renaissance.<br />
<br />
<b>The Geneva Conventions</b> <br />
<b>1864 – 1949</b> The Geneva Conventions - four related treaties providing a legal basis for international law with regard to conduct in warfare<br />
Fourth Geneva Convention: Protection of civilians in time of war<br />
<br />
<b>Chemical Weapons </b><br />
<b>1899- The Hague Conference</b>- it
was obvious that weapons of chemical warfare had already been developed
during the 19th century: "A general concern over the use of poison gas
manifested itself in 1899 at the Hague Conference with a proposal
prohibiting shells filled with asphyxiating gas. The
proposal was passed, despite a single dissenting vote from the United
States. The American representative,
justified voting against the measure on the grounds that 'the
inventiveness of Americans should not be restricted in the development
of new weapons.'- Wikipedia<br />
<br />
<b>World War One </b><br />
<b>1914-1918- Use of poisons as weapons</b> (All major belligerents used poisonous gasses, mostly mustard chlorine gas against enemy personnel in combat.) <br />
<b>1916- Anton Dilger</b> (1884-1918), an American educated as a surgeon
in Germany, set up a basement laboratory in Washington DC for
cultivating anthrax bacteria and Pseudomonas mallei to infect horses and
cattle destined to supply Allied armies. German saboteurs disseminated
the bacteria. Dilger later moved to Mexico to help goad Mexico into
attacking the US. He died of the Spanish flu in Madrid. In 2007 Robert
Koenig authored “The Fourth Horseman: One Man’s Mission to Wage the
Great War in America."<br />
<br />
<b>Poison Gas.</b> <br />
<b>1937-1838- The Japanese generally used poison gas</b> in their invasion of China. <br />
<b>1938- Sarin gas discovered</b> in Wuppertal-Elberfeld in Germany by two German scientists attempting to create stronger pesticides.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>World War Two and the Holocaust.</b><br />
<b>Both sides generally avoided the use of Poison gas</b> during military operations during World War Two for fear of retaliation in kind.<b> </b><b>1943-1945-</b> <b>The Holocaust- </b>the policy of detaining Jews in
forced labour camps developed into a program of extermination or
genocide in which 6 million Jews were gassed to death, mostly with
carbon monoxide many by summary execution, resulting in the killing of
70% of German Jewry. Casualties numbers all told from Nazi abuse,
internment and murder of different groups and nationalities reached 20
million. <br />
<br />
<b>Iraq- the Halabja Massacre.</b> <br />
<b>1987-1988- Iraq, Halabja Massacre- Saddam Hussein</b> used poison gas against Kurdish resistance first gassing the population ol Halabja. "By 1988, some 4,000 villages had been destroyed, an estimated 180,000
Kurds had been killed and some 1.5 million had been deported." <br />
<br />
<b>The 2003 US Invasion of Iraq,</b><br />
2002-early 2003- UN weapons inspectors find no evidence that Iraq is
in possession of any weapons of mass destruction, including bacterial
and nerve agents.<br />
-the Bush administration, under the instruction
of Vice President Dick Cheney attempts to fabricate the evidence that
will persuade Congress to approve the invasion of Iraq. <br />
<br />
<b>Syrian Civil War.</b><br />
<b>1993- UN outlaws </b>the use of the nerve agent Sarin gas.<br />
<b>2013- April 24- Syria's Assad regime</b> suspected by Israel of using poison gas, possibly Sarin, against civilians- in March near Aleppo and Damascus. <br />
<b>2013- June 13- Syria's Assad regime all but confirmed</b> to have used poison gas, a nerve agent like Sarin on civilians. </div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-88784329275350111282013-08-22T18:36:00.000-07:002013-08-23T16:42:08.348-07:00Timeline and Chronology for the History of War Crimes and Human Rights.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">War Crimes and Human Rights.</span><i><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></i></div>
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQBaMvXHeF51sWEm2l1Nfa3oAEwQqCjXfQvL6b7TEyf6KU_-JE2YA" data-sz="f" name="Fnk1ZlPjssHDPM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQBaMvXHeF51sWEm2l1Nfa3oAEwQqCjXfQvL6b7TEyf6KU_-JE2YA" style="height: 188px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 268px;" /><br />
<br />
<i>With thanks to:</i> <br />
<i>http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007095 </i><br />
<i>http://www.rnw.nl/international-justice/article/timeline-war-crimes-trials-ancient-rome-geneva-and-beyond</i><br />
<i>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_war_crimes <b><br /></b></i><br />
<i>http://blogs.nysut.org/sttp/resources/chronology-of-human-rights/ </i><b><br /></b><br />
<i>-Wikipedia</i><br />
<br />
<b>Early Charters.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2100 B.C</b>.-(circa) In Iraq, the Laws of Hammurabi, the first written legal code, vows to
“make justice reign in the kingdom, to destroy the wicked and violent,
to enlighten the country and promote the good of the people.”<br />
<b>1,000 BC- Use of arsenical smokes</b> in warfare were known to the Chinese. <br />
<b>570 B.C</b>.-(circa) The Charter of Cyrus is drawn up by King Cyrus the Great of Persia
(now Iran) for the people of his kingdom, recognizing rights to liberty,
security, freedom of movement, the right to own property, and some
economic and social rights.<br />
<b>1215- </b> Bowing to pressure from English nobles, King John of England signs the Magna
Carta, which establishes limits on arbitrary power and rights to due
process.<br />
<br />
<b>1474</b> The first “international” war crimes trial -
Peter von Hagenbach convicted by a Holy Roman Empire ad hoc tribunal of
command responsibility. He was beheaded.<br />
<br />
<b>Poison Gas.</b> <br />
<b>1500- The use of poison gas,</b> not employed since ancient and medieval times, is reintroduced, in limited form, during the Italian Renaissance.<br />
<br />
<b>The Treaty of Westphalia</b> <br />
<b>1648</b>- <b>The Treaty of Westphalia</b>, Germany, an early international legal
treaty, establishes autonomy in religious matters for individual states.<br />
<br />
<b>The Anglo-American Tradition</b> <br />
<b>1679</b>-<b>The Habeas Corpus Act</b> in Britain gives anyone who is detained the right to a fair trial within a certain amount of time.<br />
<b>1689- Britain’s Bill of Rights</b> upholds the supremacy of Parliament over the
King, and provides freedom of speech, the right to bail, freedom from
torture, free elections, and trials by jury.<br />
<b>1776- The U.S. Declaration of Independence</b> declares, “all men are created
equal” and establishes North America’s independence from the British
Empire.<br />
<br />
<b>The French Revolution.</b> <br />
<b>1789- The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens</b> is established after the overthrow of the the French monarchy.<br />
<br />
<b>American Bil of Rights </b><br />
<b>1791-The American Bill of Rights</b> and Constitution list basic civil and
political rights of citizens including freedom of speech and rule of
law.<br />
<br />
<b>Andersonville</b><br />
<b>1861-1865- Andersonville Prison, Georgia</b> -a Confederate prisoner of war camp which received 45,000 Union prisoners of whom 13,000 died of abuse, disease and starvation.<br />
<br />
<b>The Geneva Conventions</b> <br />
<b>1864 – 1949</b> The Geneva Conventions - four related treaties providing a legal basis for international law with regard to conduct in warfare<br />
First Geneva Convention: Treatment of wounded and sick in armed forces in the field<br />
Second Geneva Convention: Treatment of wounded and sick members of armed forces at sea<br />
Third Geneva Convention: Treatment of prisoners of war<br />
Fourth Geneva Convention: Protection of civilians in time of war<br />
<b>1899 and 1907</b> The Hague Conventions - the first
formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes (along with the
First and Second Geneva Conventions)<br />
<br />
<b>Chemical Weapons </b><br />
<b>1899- The Hague Conference</b>- it was obvious that weapons of chemical warfare had already been developed during the 19th century: "A general concern over the use of poison gas manifested itself in 1899 at the Hague Conference with a proposal prohibiting shells filled with asphyxiating gas. The
proposal was passed, despite a single dissenting vote from the United
States. The American representative,
justified voting against the measure on the grounds that 'the
inventiveness of Americans should not be restricted in the development
of new weapons.'- Wikipedia<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>The Term 'Genocide' </b><br />
<b>1900: Raphael Lemkin</b>- who would later coin the
word "genocide," was born into a Polish Jewish family in 1900. His
memoirs detail early exposure to the history of Ottoman attacks against
Armenians (which most scholars believe constitute genocide), antisemitic
pogroms, and other histories of group-targeted violence as key to
forming his beliefs about the need for legal protection of groups.<br />
<br />
<b>World War One and Armenian Genocide </b><br />
<b>1914-1918- Use of poisons as weapons</b> (All major belligerents used poisonous gasses against enemy personnel in combat.)<br />
<b>1915- Armenian Genocide- </b>The Young Turk<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turk" title="Young Turk"></a> regime ordered the wholesale extermination of Armenians<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_people" title="Armenian people"></a> living within Anatolia<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia"></a>.
This was carried out by certain elements of their military forces, who
either massacred Armenians outright, or deported them to Syria and then
massacred them. Over 1.5 million Armenians perished.<br />
<b>1916- Anton Dilger</b> (1884-1918), an American educated as a surgeon in Germany, set up a basement laboratory in Washington DC for cultivating anthrax bacteria and Pseudomonas mallei to infect horses and cattle destined to supply Allied armies. German saboteurs disseminated the bacteria. Dilger later moved to Mexico to help goad Mexico into attacking the US. He died of the Spanish flu in Madrid. In 2007 Robert Koenig authored “The Fourth Horseman: One Man’s Mission to Wage the Great War in America."<br />
<b>1921</b> Leipzig War Crimes Trial - Several German
military commanders in the First World War were tried by the German
Supreme Court for war crimes.<br />
<br />
<b>1938- Sarin gas discovered</b> in Wuppertal<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuppertal" title="Wuppertal"></a>-Elberfeld in Germany by two German scientists attempting to create stronger pesticides.<br />
<br />
<b>The Nanking Massacre</b><br />
<b>1937-1938 (Dec-Jan) Nanking Massacre </b>in which Japanese troops occupying Nanking, China, massacred about 280,000 Chinese civilians. <br />
<b>The Japanese generally used poison gas</b> in their invasion of China.<br />
<br />
<b>World War Two and the Holocaust.</b><br />
<b>Both sides generally avoided the use of Poison gas</b> during military operations during World War Two for fear of retaliation in kind.<b> </b><br />
<b>1940- April-May- the Katyn Massacre- </b>Katyn, Poland- in which Stalin's secret police, the NKVD, murdered the entire Polish officer corps of about 21,000 in the Katyn Forest.<b> </b> <br />
<b>1941: A crime without a name</b> On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union<a href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005164"></a>.
As the German forces advanced further east, SS, police, and military
personnel carried out atrocities that moved British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill to state in August 1941: “We are in the presence of a
crime without a name.” In December 1941, the United States entered World
War II on the side of the Allied forces. Lemkin, who arrived in the
United States as a refugee in 1941, had heard of Churchill’s speech and
later claimed that his introduction of the word “genocide” was in part a
response to Churchill’s statement<br />
<b>1942- Jan 20- The Wannsee Conference-</b>in which the Nazi leadership decided on the 'final solution' or the extermination of European Jewry.<br />
<b>1943-1945-</b> <b>The Holocaust- </b>the policy of detaining Jews in forced labour camps developed into a program ol extermination or genocide in which 6 million Jews were gassed to death, mostly with carbon monoxide many by summary execution, resulting in the killing of 70% of German Jewry. Casualties numbers all told from Nazi abuse, internment and murder of different groups and nationalities reach 20 million.<br />
<b>1944-1982- Napalm,</b> a liquid incendiary agent notorious for burning on flesh was used widely in wars in the second half of the 20th century, and especially by the US Air Force to devastaing effect in Viet Nam. <br />
<b>1945- Feb 13-15- Dresden Firestorm- </b>the intensive Allied bombing of Dresden created a vacuum at the heart of the city which drew in and killed many of the 24,000 Germans who perished. THis is mostly considered to have been an act of war. But there has been much controversy as to whether this constituted a war crime and some have accused Winston Churchill of planning the bombing and firestorm as an act of the deliberate extermination of civilians. <b> </b><br />
<b> 1945-1946</b>- London Charter / Nuremberg Trials - Along with
war crimes the charter also defined crimes against peace and crimes
against humanity.<br />
<br />
<b>Nuremberg Trials</b> <br />
<b>1945-1946: International Military Tribunal</b><a href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007069"></a>
in Nuremberg tried 22 major Nazi German leaders on charges of crimes
against peace, war crimes, crimes against humanity and conspiracy to
commit each of these crimes. It was the first time that international
tribunals were used as a post-war mechanism for bringing national
leaders to justice. The word “genocide” was included in the indictment,
but as a descriptive, not legal, term. <br />
<b>1946</b> International Military Tribunal for the Far
East, Tokyo - Tried the leaders of the Empire of Japan for: crimes
against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, committed during
World War II.<br />
<br />
<b>Convention of Genocide</b> <br />
<b>1947-1948: Creating an international convention on genocide</b>- Raphael
Lemkin was a critical force for bringing “genocide” before the nascent
United Nations, where delegates from around the world debated the terms
of an international law on genocide. On December 9, 1948, the final text
was adopted unanimously. The United Nations Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of Genocide entered into force on January 12,
1951, after more than 20 countries from around the world ratified it.<br />
<br />
<b>Viet Nam</b> <br />
<b>1968- </b>March 16- The My Lai Massacre, My Lai Vietnam. Only Lt. William Calley was convicted in the massacre by US troops of around 400 Vietnamese men, women and children.<br />
<br />
<b>Chile </b><br />
<b>1973-1990- In Chile, the regime of Augusto Pinochet,</b> who took power in a coup d'etat in 1973, systematically repressed communists, socialists and other political opponents. At least 2,279 persons were conclusively murdered<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder" title="Murder"></a> by the Chilean government for political reasons during Pinochet's regime, and at at least 30,000 persons were tortured<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture" title="Torture"></a> by the government for political reasons.<br />
<br />
<b>Pol Pot </b><br />
<b>1975-1979- The Cambodian Genocide</b> under the Khmer Rouge government led by Pol Pot- took the lives of around 2 million, mostly in forced labour camps where they had been imprisoned on the least suspicion of opposing the far-left Communist Party Party of Kampuchea. <br />
<b>1981- Dec. 11- El Salvador, The El Mozote massacre </b>in which 800 people of the village of El Mozote, El Salvador, were murdered by an elite Salvadoran military unit during the El Salvador Civil war.<br />
<br />
<b>Latin America in the 1970s and 1980s.</b> <br />
<b>1970-1983- Argentina's 'Dirty War' </b>in which state terrorism was used by a right-wing military junta against political dissidents, with military and security
forces conducting urban and rural guerrilla warfare against left-wing
guerrillas, political dissidents, and anyone believed to be associated
with socialism.
Victims of the violence included an estimated 15,000 to 30,000
left-wing activists and militants, including trade unionists, students,
journalists and alleged sympathizers. Those may include the 30,000 generally agreed to have "been disappeared."<br />
<b>1979-1996- The Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (1979-1989) and the the subsequent Afghan Civil War- </b>in both the mere concept of human rights and and the rules of war were entirely absent. Torture, reprisal and the use and abuse of women, children and civilians in general was routine.<b> </b> <br />
<br />
<b>Nicaragua, 1979-1980</b>- Numerous war crimes were committed against Sandinista government sympathizers by Contra Guerrilla forces with CIA support and probably with CIA knowledge, during the Nicaraguan Civil war which pitted the Contras against the Sandinista army. The Sandinista Government was guilty of forced re-education and relocation and abuse of local populations, particularly the internment and relocation of the Miskito Indians.<br />
<b>1980- the use of naplam</b> <b>on civilian populations</b> is banned by the U.N. <br />
<b>1981- Guatemalan military counterinsurgency: </b>Sources with the human rights office of the Catholic Church estimated
the death toll from military repression in 1981 at 11,000, with most of
the victims indigenous<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples"></a> peasants of the Guatemalan highlands.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-74"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War#cite_note-74"></a></sup> Other sources and observers put the death toll due to government repression in 1981 at between 9,000 and 13,500. (Wikipedia) <br />
<b>1982-1983-</b> <b>Ixil, Guatemala</b>- the Rios Montt government unleashed a
bloody counterinsurgency against an indigenous guerrilla uprising and its alleged
civilian supporters in the rural highlands. Although the conflict
engulfed huge swaths of the country, the case focused on human rights
crimes committed by Ríos Montt’s army in the Ixil region of the
department of Quiché, where 1,771 indigenous Mayans were killed and some
29,000 displaced in a scorched-earth strategy designed to destroy the
Ixil communities once and for all. (The Nation)<br />
<b>1982-1984-</b> <b>Rios Montt regime in Guatemala: t</b>he use of state-terror and indiscriminate repression reached its highest
levels during Ríos Montt's presidency, mostly within the framework of
the rural counterinsurgency. The CIIDH database documented 18,000 state
killings in the year 1982. In April 1982 alone (General Efraín Ríos
Montt's first full month in office), the military committed 3,330
documented killings, a rate of approximately 111 per day. Historians and
analysts estimate the total death toll could exceed this number by the
tens of thousands.<br />
<br />
<b>1983, Feb 22- Las Hojas Massacre, El Salvador</b>- On February 22, 1983, approximately 74 people were assassinated by members
of the Salvadoran security forces near Las Hojas, Sonsonate, El Salvador.
All the identified victims were assassinated with firearms at close range.
The massacre was carried out in a premeditated fashion by Salvadoran Armed
Forces, with the participation of members of the Civil Defense. The Government
of El Salvador has failed to bring any successful prosecution against members
of its forces implicated in the massacre and has improperly used an amnesty
law in violation of its international obligations under human rights law. (http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/cases/26-92-EL-SALVADOR.htm)<br />
<b>1987-1988- Iraq, Halabja Massacre- Saddam Hussein</b> used poison gas against Kurdish resistance first gassing the population ol Halabja. "By 1988, some 4,000 villages had been destroyed, an estimated 180,000
Kurds had been killed and some 1.5 million had been deported." <br />
<br />
<b>1988: US signs the Genocide Convention</b><br />
On November 4, 1988, US
President Ronald Reagan signed the UN Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of Genocide. The Convention had strong supporters, but also
faced ardent opponents, who argued it would infringe on US national
sovereignty. One of the Convention’s strongest advocates, Senator
William Proxmire from Wisconsin delivered over 3,000 speeches advocating
the Convention in Congress from 1968-1987<br />
<b>1991-1995: Wars of the former Yugoslavia</b><br />
The wars of the
former Yugoslavia were marked by massive war crimes and crimes against
humanity. The conflict in Bosnia (1992-1995) brought some of the
harshest fighting and worst massacres to Europe since World War II. In
one small town, Srebrenica, as many as 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were
murdered by Serbian forces.<br />
<b>1993: Resolution 827</b>- In response to the atrocities occurring
in Bosnia, the United Nations Security Council issued resolution 827,
establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for the former
Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague. It was the first international criminal
tribunal since Nuremberg. Crimes the ICTY can prosecute and try are:
grave breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, violations of the laws or
customs of war, genocide, and crimes against humanity. Its jurisdiction
is limited to crimes committed on the territory of the former
Yugoslavia.<br />
<br />
<b>1993- UN outlaws </b>the use of the nerve agent Sarin gas.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Rawanda</b> <br />
<b>1994: Genocide in Rwanda</b>- From April until mid-July, at least 500,000 civilians, mostly from the Tutsi minority group, were killed in Rawand.
It was killing on a devastating scale, scope, and speed. In October,
the UN Security Council extended the mandate of the ICTY to include a
separate but linked tribunal for Rwanda, the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), located in Arusha, Tanzania.<br />
<br />
<b>The Balkans, Afghanistan and Congo.</b> <br />
<b>1995- The Srebrenica Massacre-</b>the killing of more than 8,000 Bosnian Muslim<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_Muslim" title="Bosnian Muslim"></a>
men and boys, as well as the mass expulsion of another 25,000–30,000
Bosnian Muslim civilians, by Serbian trooops in and around the town of Srebrenica, Bosnia.<br />
<b></b> <br />
<b>1996-2001- the Taliban Rule of Afghanistan- </b>involved most human rights abuses, including torture, imprisonment and execution without due process; and together with the abuse and almost total control of the lives of women and denial of women's rights regarded as universal but absent under under by Taliban law <br />
<b>1997-present- The Congo Wars</b>- a series of invasions and civil wars involving Congo and its neighbours has resulted in countless casualties, deaths and abuses, the most notable of which is the pervasive use of rape as a weapon of war.<br />
<br />
<b>Genocide</b> <br />
<b>1998: First conviction for genocide</b>- On September 2, 1998, the ICTR issued the world’s first conviction for genocide in an international tribunal when Jean-Paul Akayesu<a href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007157"></a>
was judged guilty of genocide and crimes against humanity for acts he
engaged in and oversaw as mayor of the Rwandan town of Taba.<br />
<b>1998-1999- Serbia and Kosovar </b>Between 1998 and June 1999, up to 12,000, during the Serbian offensive in ehtnically Albanian Kosovar Albanian men, women and
children were murdered by a lethal mix of Serbian “security” forces.
Some 800,000 were forcibly deported, or fled in terror. Various estimates of the number of killings attributed to Yugoslav
forces have been announced through the years. An estimated 800,000
Kosovo Albanians fled and an estimated 7,000 to 9,000 were killed. <br />
<b>1998-2002</b>- Through an international treaty ratified on July 17, 1998, the
International Criminal Court was permanently established to prosecute
genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The treaty
reconfirmed the definition of genocide found in the 1948 Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. It also expanded
the definition of crimes against humanity and prohibits these crimes
during times of war or peace.<br />
<br />
<b>9/11</b> <br />
<b>2001- September 11 attacks- </b>American civilians were targeted when two jets hijacked by Al Qaeda under orders of Osama Bin Laden flew into the the twin towers of the World Trade Center. One was crashed into the Pentagon and a third crashed in a field. The death toll was around 3,000. <br />
<br />
<b> International Criminal Court</b> <br />
<b>2002 International Criminal Court, The Hague</b> - On
July 1, 2002, the International Criminal Court, a treaty-based court,
came into being for the prosecution of war crimes and crimes against
humanity committed on or after that date. Several nations, most notably
the United States, China, Russia, and Israel, have criticized the court.
The United States still refuses to ratify the 1998 Rome Statute
establishing the ICC.<br />
<br />
<b>The 2003 US Invasion of Iraq.</b> <br />
<b>2002-early 2003- UN weapons inspectors</b> find no evidence that Iraq is
in possession of any weapons of mass destruction, including bacterial
and nerve agents.<br />
-the Bush administration, under the instruction
of Vice President Dick Cheney attempts to fabricate the evidence that
will persuade Congress to approve the invasion of Iraq. <br />
<b>2003-2013- Sunni and Shia atrocities</b> including suicide bombings, torture and gratuitous murder of civilians before, during and after the the Sunni-Shia Civil War of 2006-2008.<br />
<b>2003-2004- Aby Graib- </b>(late 2003 to early 2004)-<b> </b>In the American detention center of Abu Graib, Iraq, revelation of the large scale humiliation, abuse and torture of Iraqi prisoners by the American military, apparently approved by US authorities.<br />
<br />
<b>Darfur</b> <br />
<b>2004-present: Genocide in Darfur</b>- For the first time in US government
history, an ongoing crisis was referred to as a "genocide." On September
9, 2004, Secretary of State Colin Powell testified before the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee that "We concluded--I concluded--that
genocide has been committed in Darfur and that the Government of Sudan
and the Janjaweed bear responsibility--and that genocide may still be
occurring." The death toll in the wake of the attacks of Janjaweed Arab militias on black southern farming people and related local conflicts, together with starvation has risen to about 300,000. <br />
<b>2005, Nov. 19</b>- <b>Haditha Massacre, Iraq-</b>American marines murder 24 Iraqi American men, women and children in the Iraqi village of Haditha, in apparent revenge for an IED attack.<br />
<b>2012- March 11- US soldier Robert Bales</b> kills 16 Afghan civilians, mostly women and children in an alcohol-fueled rampage in Panjwai, Afghanistan. <br />
<br />
<b>Guantanamo Bay.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2011 -April 28-</b> Former Dutch Foreign Affairs
Minister Ben Bot – “I’ve tried as Minister of Foreign Affairs to gather a
number of eminent legal personalities to consider an additional Geneva
Convention dealing with such cases (as the Guantanomo Bay suspects), but
so far these efforts have been in vain.”<br />
<br />
<b>Syrian Civil War.</b><br />
<b>2011 to present: </b>the civil war between the Assad government and the rebel resistance and armed opposition has been characterized by the wholesale massacre of civilians, mostly by government forces.<b> </b>But massacres and abuses by the rebel opposition have begun to emerge as well. <br />
<b>2013- April 24- Syria's Assad regime</b> suspected by Israel of using poison gas, possibly Sarin, against civilians- in March near Aleppo and Damascus. <br />
<b>2013- June 13- Syria's Assad regime all but confirmed</b> to have used poison gas on civilians. <br />
<br /></div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-34404282101441942082013-08-21T17:56:00.000-07:002013-08-21T17:58:32.313-07:00Timeline and Chronoogy for Mexico, 25,000 BC- 2013 AD. <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<b>Mexico</b><br />
<br />
<b><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQorSiS36fd5gz2YH46yAbCarnW5Ak9HvN2Urrw6U8CPJ9yOd4Uvg" data-sz="f" name="NuzqiL0FYBYAdM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQorSiS36fd5gz2YH46yAbCarnW5Ak9HvN2Urrw6U8CPJ9yOd4Uvg" style="height: 181px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: -28px; margin-top: 0px; width: 273px;" /> </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">TIMELINE FOR THE HISTORY OF MEXICO</span><br />
(<i>Thanks in part to BBC for several items after 1910)</i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
(<i>Thanks to 'Timelines of History' for several items before 1519)</i><br />
(<i>Thanks to www.facts-about.org.uk for some items between 1519 and 1910)</i><br />
(<i>Thanks to Luis Astorga for items from </i>Drug Trafficking in Mexico.)<br />
(<i>Thanks to Wikipedia for items on the Mexican Drug Traffc)</i><br />
<br />
<b>NEOLITHIC TIMES.</b><br />
<br />
25,000 BC- possible earliest migrations from Bering Strait arrive in Mesoamerica.<i> </i><br />
<i> </i> <br />
11000BC Scientists in 2001-2002 discovered skeletons in caves along Mexico’s Yucatan coast that dated to about this time.<br />
<br />
11000BC
Peñon Woman, found in central Mexico in 1959, dated to this time. She
shared many of the features found in the Kennewick Man (1996) of
Washington State.<br />
<br />
7,975BCE Humans lived in a cave near
Oaxaca, Mexico, named Guila Naquitz (White Cliff). Scattered remains of
tools, seeds and plants were found in 1966 by archeologist Kent
Flannery and some of the seeds were dated to this time. The squash seeds
showed signs of cultivation.<br />
<br />
<b>7000-1500 BC- THE ARCHAIC PERIOD. </b><br />
<br />
5100BCE agriculture established.<br />
<br />
2700BCE Domesticated maize in Mexico goes back to this time.<br />
<br />
2500BC
- a 4,500-year-old burial in Mexico that showed front teeth ground down
so they could be mounted with animal teeth. It was the oldest example
of dental work in the Americas.<br />
<br />
<br />
1600BC
The Paso de Amada site of Chiapas, Mexico, was first settled about this
time in the Soconusco region, which extended down the Pacific coast into
Guatemala. The town numbered about 2,000 people, who were later dubbed
the Mokaya (maize people).<br />
<br />
1600BC-1250BC An earthen
mound on the southern Mexico-Guatemala border dated to this period and
was considered part of a chiefdom center of the Mokaya people.<br />
<br />
<b>1500 BC- 150 AD. THE FORMATIVE PERIOD </b><br />
<br />
-established farming villages raising beans, corn, squash. Pottery and weaving.<br />
<br />
<b>1500-400 BC- The Olmec Civilizarion. </b><br />
<br />
<br />
-Olmecs ancestral to all the great dynasties lof Mexico.<br />
-these
societies fit the requirements of civilization: namely- economies
founded on intensive farming; dense concentrations of population; strict
social hierarchies; specialization of skills and trades; state
structure and administration that cut across kinship and locality; food
production organized on a national basis; efficient systems of
nationwide distribution; permanent armies; diversified settlement
patterns; monumental architecture; concentration of public functions in
cities and other areas.<br />
<br />
1500BC A court to play ulama
was built about this time in Chiapas, Mexico. Olmecs used latex balls
for the game. The Olmecs processed rubber using latex from rubber trees
mixed with juice from the morning glory vine. The rubber was used to
make a bouncy ball for their ball games.<br />
<br />
1500BC-1100BC
Evidence found in 1998 revealed terraced farming for corn back to this
time in northeast Mexico on a hilltop overlooking the Rio Casa Grandes.<br />
<br />
1400BC-400BC
The Olmecs, who called themselves Xi, were the earliest known
civilization of Mesoamerica. They influenced the subsequent
civilizations of the Maya and Aztec. They inhabited the Gulf Coast
region of what is now Mexico and Central America. Their capital was San
Lorenzo, near the present day city of Veracruz. In 1968 Michael D. Coe
authored “America’s First Civilization: Discovering the Olmec.” <br />
<br />
1250BC-1150BC This time frame is referred to as the Initial Olmec Period of southern Mexico.<br />
<br />
1200BC
The tradition of the Mokaya people at coastal Chiapas and Guatemala
came to a sudden end about this time. This appeared to coincide with the
rise of the Olmec people.<br />
<br />
-Olmec carved monuments- massive busts of Olmec rulers in basalt. <br />
<br />
-an Olmec capital at San Lorenzo. <br />
<br />
1200BC-400BC
The Olmecs built impressive cities and established trade routes
throughout Mesoamerica, that included settlements at La Venta and Tres
Zapotes.<br />
<br />
1200BC-300BCE The Olmec people ruled southern Mexico and northern Central America.<br />
<br />
1150BC-1000BC This time frame is referred to as the Early Olmec Period of southern Mexico.<br />
<br />
1000BC
The settlement at Canton Corralito on the southern Mexico-Guatemala
border covered at least 60 acres by this time and was believed to be a
colony of the Gulf Olmec people. About this time the nearby Coatan River
began to rise and engulfed the settlement.<br />
<br />
900BC
In 2006 Mexican archeologists discovered a stone block in Veracruz
state inscribed with 62 distinct signs that dated to about this time.
The Cascajal stone was attributed to the Olmecs, who civilization lasted
from about 1200BC-400BC.<br />
<br />
-destruction of the Olmec capital at San Lorenzo by invasion and internal revolt.<br />
<br />
-La Venta rises to become the new Olmec capital.<br />
<br />
<b>The Late Olmec Period.</b><br />
<br />
900BC-500BC-
This time frame is referred to as the Late Olmec Period of southern
Mexico, which featured pyramids for the first time in ceremonial
centers. La Venta, the 2nd major Olmec capital dates to this period.<br />
<br />
800
BC- Olmecs beginning to influence social mand relgious organizations
from the Valley of Mexico to as far south as El Salvador. <br />
<br />
<br />
800BC-500BC
Zazacatla in central Mexico covered less than one square mile between
during this period. Inhabitants of Zazacatla adopted Olmec styles when
they changed from a simple, egalitarian society to a more complex,
hierarchical one. Much of it was later covered by housing and commercial
development extending from Cuernavaca.<br />
<br />
600BCE- The great Olmec Ceremonial Center in Tabasco, Mexico, was abandoned about this time.<br />
<br />
600BCE The Zapotec city of Monte Alban was founded in the Oaxaca valley.<br />
<br />
400 BCE- destruction of the Olmec capital of La venta.<br />
<br />
-new Olmec capital established at Tres Zapotes.<br />
<br />
300 BC- 200 AD- Olmec civilization gives way to:<br />
<br />
<b>The Zapotec Civilization.</b><br />
<br />
-Zapotec civilization of Monte Alban in the Oaxaca Valley<br />
<br />
<b>The Emergence of Teotihuacan.</b><br />
<br />
200BCE Migrations began toward the area north of Lake Texcoco where the urban center of Teotihuacan developed.<br />
<br />
100BCE The area around Palenque first occupied.<br />
<br />
0- Paintings on rock surfaces in the central mountain ranges of the Baha Peninsula by unknown native Indians. <br />
<br />
100-150
- a pre-Columbian civilization from the Pyramid of the Moon in
Teotihuacan. Just north of Mexico City, Teotihuacan planned at about the
beginning of the Christian era; sacked and burned by invading Toltecs
in 650.<br />
<br />
Teotihuacan the largest city in pre-conquest America.<br />
<br />
<b>150-900 THE CLASSIC PERIOD.</b><br />
<br />
<b>200-650- The Empire of Teotihuacanin Central Mexico.</b><br />
<br />
150-200AD
The Temple of Quetzalcoatl in Teotihuacan (City of the Gods) was built
near what later became Mexico City. Quetzalcoatl was considered as the
origin of all human activities on earth, the creator of land and time
and its divisions.<br />
<b><br />
</b> <br />
<b>200-850 AD- Epoch of the Classic Maya in Yucatan</b><br />
<br />
<br />
200-300
Campeche (Mexico), from the 3rd century, was the principal town of the
Maya kingdom of Ah Kin Pech (place of serpents and ticks).<br />
<br />
<br />
300- highlands of Guatemala conquered by Teotihuacan.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
300
Mayans began building on Cozumel Island off Mexico’s Yucatan
peninsula about this time. The town of San Gervasio built and inhabited
through 1650. Cozumel covers 189 square miles, about the size of Lake
Tahoe<b> </b><br />
<b><br />
</b><br />
<b>Teotihuacan.</b><br />
<br />
300-900 -the empire of Teotihuacan, largest of the ancient Mexican empires, will spread from the Valley of Mexico to Guatemala.<br />
<br />
400- Conquest of Peten by Teotihuacan.<b> </b><br />
<br />
431- A great Mayan dynasty at Palenque; soon began trading with communities hundreds of miles away.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b> </b>562-
Tikal in Guatemala was conquered possibly by the Mayans of Calakmul
city in Mexico. Calakmul is one of the largest of Mayan cities with more
than 6,000 structures. It was the capital of a widespread hegemony of
Lowland Maya kingdoms during the Late Classic (600-900).<b> </b><br />
<br />
-Teotihuacan at its height- a fully planned metropolis of 11 square miles, population 150,000.<br />
<br />
600-900
A three hundred year dynasty ruled over Palenque. In the Pyramid of
Inscriptions is the tomb of Pakal, the greatest king of the dynasty.<b> </b><br />
<br />
-Mayan cultural and artistic achievement reaches is height.<br />
<br />
615 -Pakal (12) became the Mayan ruler of Palenque. His reign ended with his death in 683.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>Decline of Teotihuacan.</b><br />
<br />
650-750 -The Teotihuacan culture began declining and was almost abandoned by the end of this period. <b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
c750 Teotihuacan,
the 1st major urban center of Mesoamerica, fell about this time. It was
burned, deserted and its people scattered. It contained the Pyramid of
the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>Collapse of the Yucatan Maya.</b><br />
<br />
750-850 -beginning of the collapse of the Maya of Yucatan.<b><br />
</b><br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
800- discovery of metallurgy. <br />
<br />
900-
end of Maya civilization as the population exceeds the food supply;
ceremonial areas are abandoned, possibly due to a rebellion against
monumental fertility gods in favour of private rites and worship.
Outlying areas in the Yucatan continue to thrive, albeit at the mercy of
the great Mexican empires. <br />
<br />
<b>900-1250- EARLY POST-CLASSIC PERIOD.</b> <br />
<br />
<b>The Toltec Empire replaces the Mayan.</b><br />
<br />
900- 1250- rise of the Toltec empire in highlands. Toltecs penetrate Mayan lands. <br />
<br />
970- 1000- Topilzin, Toltec high priest of Quetzalcoatl. <br />
<br />
1000-1500- temple centres develope into vast, urban agglomerations.<br />
<br />
987-1187- Toltec city of Cichen Itza established in declining Mayan civilization. <br />
<br />
1156- fall of Tula, the Toltec capital. <br />
<br />
1187-1446- northern Yucatan ruled by Mayapan dynasty.<br />
<br />
1193- Aztecs found Tenochtitlan.<br />
<br />
<b>1250-1519- LATE POST-CLASSIC PERIOD.</b> <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>The Aztec Empire.</b><br />
<br />
1325-1519- duration of the empire of the Aztecs.<br />
<br />
1350- Aztecs occupy the Valley of Mexico, overthrowing the Toltecs.<br />
<br />
- the Culhuacan Aztecs build Tenochtitlan on lake Texoco.<br />
<br />
- the Tepanec Aztecs build the city of Tlatelolco<br />
<br />
- under king Tezozomoc, the Tepanecs expand across the west to form an empire.<br />
<br />
1423- upon the death of Tezozomoc, the Tepanec empire crumbles in local rebellions.<br />
<br />
-Tenochtitlan
Aztecs expand in a triple alliance as Aztec human sacrifices of
prisoners and conquered peoples feed the increasing appetite of the gods
of the temple cities.<br />
<br />
<b>Itzcoatl, King of the Aztecs.</b><br />
<br />
1426-1440- conquests of Itzcoatl, king of the Aztecs.<br />
<br />
-despite their conquests, Aztecs leave tribal and city state structures intact.<br />
<br />
1475- the Tenochtitlan Aztecs take control of Tlatelolco.<br />
<br />
<b>Aztec Human Sacrifice.</b><br />
<br />
1487- Aztec dedication of the temple of Tenochtitlan- 80,000 sacrificed.<br />
<br />
<br />
1492- Columbus the first European to discover the Americas.<br />
<br />
1500s
Zapotec Indians founded the town of San Antonino after Spaniards
took over Ocotlan in Oaxaca. The residents later came to be called
Tonineros.<br />
<br />
<b>Montezuma II, King of theAztecs.</b> <br />
<br />
1502 Moctezuma Xocoyotl (Montezuma II), an Aztec prince, inherits the Aztec throne becoming the 9th ruler of the Aztecs.<br />
<br />
<br />
1466-1520
Montezuma II, Aztec emperor. He amassed great wealth through taxation
in Mexico and Central America. He used his wealth to enlarge and
beautify his capital at Tenochtitlan which reached a population of
200,000.<br />
<br />
<b>Cordoba of Spain finds remains of Mayan civilization.</b><br />
<br />
1517
Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, Spanish explorer, sails from Cuba
and discovered the Mayan civilization in the Yucatan, southeast Mexico.
<br />
<br />
<b>Arrival of Cortez</b><br />
<br />
1519
Mar 13, The Spaniards under Cortes land at Vera Cruz with 10 stallions,
5 mares and a foal. Smallpox is carried to America by the Cortes
expedition.<br />
<br />
1520- Spain makes Cortes ruler of a Spanish empire of 5 million subjects.<br />
<br />
<b>Spanish Conquest of Mexico.</b><br />
<br />
1519-1524-
Cortes conquers the Aztec empire. Tribes resentful of Aztec human
sacrifice, easily break away from Aztec domination and form alliances
with the Spanish.<br />
<br />
Population of Mexico at that time, 11 million. <br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1520 Moctezuma II ( aka Montezuma ) is killed,</span><br />
<br />
1521- Augustt 13- Cortes plundered the Aztec capital at Tenochtitlan.<br />
<br />
1524- Cortés met the Itzá people, the last of the Maya to remain unconquered by the Spanish.<br />
-Spain establishes the Council of the Indies.<br />
<br />
<br />
1528
The Spanish under Francisco de Montejo begin their conquest of the
northern Maya. The Maya fight back with surprising vigour, keeping the
Spanish at bay for several years.<br />
<br />
-despite attempts by
the Chruch and the Crown to protect the Indian population, the harsh
conditions of peon labour on the ecomiendas or plantations and espcially
in the mines reduces lifes expectancy. Even worse is the lavoc left by
diseases imported from Europe. <br />
<br />
<b>Chruch and State in Spanish Mexico.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1528 Juan de Zumarraga (1468-1548) arrives as bishop of Mexico City and begins native conversion to Catholicism.</span><br />
<br />
1535-
Antonio de Mendoza established in Mexico as first Spanish Viceroy of
Spanish America north of Panama, the west Indies and Venezuela. Mexico
is one of two Viceroyalties, the other at Lima, governing most of the
South America. Mexico and Lima are sister cities of Castile and Aragon,
responsible to the Crown at Castile. Mexico and Lima each have a Royal
Council through which the Spanish king wields direct authority- though
in fact, geography made this impossible. In practice, while Spain
extracted wealth from the colonies, the Viceroys of Lima and Mexico ran
the day to day administration. <br />
<br />
<b>Spanish Conquest of the Maya.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1541
The Spanish are finally able to subdue the Maya and put an end to Maya
resistance. Revolt continues, however, to plague the Spaniards off and
on for the rest of the century.<br />
<br />
1542 The Spanish establish a capital city at Mérida in Yucatán.<br />
<br />
1542- slavery is outlawed.<br />
<br />
-Mexico City, with a population of 300,000 is far lerger than any European capital.<br />
<br />
1550-
Juan Ines de Sepulveda and Bartolome de Las Casas refer to Aristotle in
debating whether or not Indians are natural slaves.<br />
<br />
1551- Univerities in Mexico and Peru are given charters.<br />
<br />
<b>Ravages of Disease and Peon labour on the Population.</b><br />
<br />
-Spain begins to supervise the extraction of silver and gold, retaining a fifth of all mined metals.<br />
<br />
1600- poor working conditions and imported disease reduce the population 20 2.5 million from 11 million nearly a century bafore.<br />
<br />
1650- gradually life expectancy of the Indian population begins to recover. <br />
<br />
1697
The city of Tayasal, capital of the Itzá in the Petén, is taken by the
Spanish. Thus the last Maya independent political entity is subdued to
the Spanish Crown.<br />
<br />
<b>Continualtion of the Mayan Rebellion.</b><br />
<br />
1712 The Maya of the Chiapas highlands rise against the Mexican government. They will continue to do so off and on until today.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1718 Franciscan missionaries settle in Texas which is of New Spain<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1718 Mission San Antonio de Valero was established which later became famous as the Alamo</span><br />
<br />
1724
The Spanish Crown abolishes the system of encomienda, which had given
Spanish land owners the right to forced Indian labour.<br />
<br />
1761 The Maya of Yucatán, led by Jacinto Canek, rise against the government.<br />
<br />
<b>Conditions on the Eve of Independence.</b><br />
<br />
1767- Jesuits made to leave Spanish America.<br />
<br />
1797-
population of Mexico City- 113,000- larger than any European city- and
the Spanish-American aristocracy is wealthier and mmore ciltivated than
any other ruling class in the new world. <br />
<br />
1800- the population has recovered from its 16th century decimation and the economy had begun to surge.<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1803 Napoleon took Louisiana back from New Spain but sold it to the United States<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1810 - Overthrow of the king of Spain by Napoleon<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;"><b>The Revolt of Father Hidalgo.</b> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1810
September 16 Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811) preaches his
Grito de Dolores, sparking rebellion and the War of Independence<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1811 Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is captured and executed<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;"><b>Mexican Independence: Iturbide and Santa Anna.</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1821 Spain recognizes Mexican independence with the Treaty of Cordoba.</span> <br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1822 General Augustin de Iturbide assumes control as Emperor of Mexico <br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1823 General Santa Anna deposes Iturbide, the monarchy fails, and a new constitution creates a federal republic</span> <br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1829 President Vicente Guerrero abolishes slavery<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1829 A Spanish attempt at re-conquest is halted by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (1794-1876)<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;"><b>Americans Migrate to Northeast Mexico: the Alamo.</b> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">-American
settlers begin to crowd into Northeast Mexico claiming land and working
it with slaves; slavery, meanwhile is illegal in Mexico.</span><br />
<br />
1835- Santa Anna's dictatorship ends in exile. <br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">-American colonists declare their independence from Mexico and form the state of of Texas. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1836
February 23 to March 6 - A band of 189 Texas volunteers defied a
Mexican army of thousands for 13 days of siege at the Alamo<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1836- April Battle of San Jacinto - General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna is captured by Sam Houston</span> <br />
<br />
1839- discovery of Mayan civilization by American John Lloyd Stephens and the English artist Frederick Catherwood. <br />
<br />
<b>American Conquest of Northern Mexico from Texas to California.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;">1846-1848 US-Mexican War as the US wrests all territory from Texas to California from Mexico. </span><br />
<br />
1847
The Yucatán Maya rise up against the Mexican government, rebelling
against the miserable conditions and cruelty they have suffered at the
hands of the whites. The rebellion is so successful that the Maya almost
manage to take over the entire peninsula in what has become known as
the War of the Castes. <br />
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<span style="color: #333333;">1848
The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo reduces Mexico's territory by half,
ceding present-day Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah,
and part of Colorado to the U.S.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<span style="color: #333333;"><br />
1853 Santa Anna agrees to the Gadsden Purchase, ceding a further 48,000 square km (30,000 square mi) to the United States<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333;"><b>The Three Years' Civil War and Benito Juarez</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333;">1857-1860- civil war, the "Three Years' War." </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333;">1860- Benito Juarez, the victor, takes control at the head of the Liberal faction. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333;">-Juarez becomes Latin America's first pure Indian head of state. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<br />
-durign the 19th century, marijuana cocaine and other opiates are available over the counter for medical use.<br />
<br />
-poppy cultivation for the manufacture of heroin is carried on in NW Mexico, in Sinaloa.<br />
<br />
<b>Louis Napoleon and the Mexican Debt Crisis.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333;">-the defeated Conservatives apppeal to Europe.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333;"> </span><br />
<span style="color: #333333;">-European
nations, having made loans to Mexico were unable to obtain repayment
due to the Three Yreas War and a bankrupt Mexican goverment. Moreover,
President Juarez decides to default on the loans while European
bondholders demand repayment. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<span style="color: #333333;">1861-1862- with the US occupied by civil war, Britain, France and Spain occupy Veracruz to demand repayment of the loans. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<br />
-Britain and Spain withdrew, believing they had made their point.<br />
<br />
<b>French Occupation of Mexico and the Emperor Maxilmilian.</b><br />
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<span style="color: #333333;">-the
Emperor Napoleon III decides to capitalize on the Mexican debt crisis
by making contact with Mexican Conservatives and bringing Mexico into a
French colonial empire for the expansion of the French economy. The new
colony was to be led by the Austrian Archduke Maximillian. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<span style="color: #333333;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333;">1862- Mexican troops repel a French attack on Mexico City on May 2nd but the city falls to the French on June 10. <br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<span style="color: #333333;">1863
the French occupy Mexico City and Napoleon III of France appoints
Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria (1832-1867) as Emperor of
Mexico<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: #333333;">1864- -Maximilian accepts the crown after a fake referendum staged by the French. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<br />
<span style="color: #333333;">1866- Washington views the French occupation of Mexico as a direct violation of the Monroe Doctrine. </span><br />
<br />
<b>At US Prompting, France withdraws from Mexico; execution of Maxilmilian.</b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333;">-with
Washington having won the American Civil War and demanding the
withdrawal of France, Napoleon III ends his Mexican project. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<br />
-Maximilian remains in power at the request of conservative factions. The liberals move to oust him.<br />
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">1867- Maximilian is captured and executed. Juarez and the Liberals return to power.</span></span><br />
<br />
<b>President Porfirio Diaz's Industrial and Economic Revolution.</b><br />
<br />
1876- Porfirio Diaz becomes president at the head of a popular revolt.<br />
<br />
-Diaz
cultivates support from the Church, the army and the landowners. His
dictatorship brings stability and foregin investment but at he expense
of poor farmers and workers. <br />
<br />
-Diaz regime brings massive, ninefold increase (1877-1907) in foreign investment and trade.<br />
<br />
-industrialization and railway construction.<br />
<br />
<b>Industrialization and Rural Poverty Seed Unrest. </b> <br />
<br />
-however there's a massive increase in the gap between rich and poor.<br />
<br />
-by
the time of the 1910 revolution, drugs are prohibited or controlled
across the border in the US while they are freely available in Mexico,
creating conditions for the drug traffic. <br />
<br />
<b>The Mexican Revolution.</b><br />
<br />
1910<b> </b>
- Beginning of Epic Revolution against the dictatorship of Porfirio
Diaz, triggered by unrest amongst peasants and urban workers soon to be
led by Emiliano Zapata.<br />
<br />
-FRancisco Madero, a member of the elite speaks out against Diaz's rigging of the 1910 election. <br />
<div class="bo">
<br />
<b>Madero.</b><br />
<br />
1911<b> </b>
- Mexico's dictator, Porfirio Diaz, resigns. The new president is
Francisco Madero, a liberal. Madero introduces land reform and labour
legislation. Political unrest continues with Zapata leading a peasant
revolt in the south. <br />
<br />
<b>Villa, Zapata and Carranza.</b><br />
<br />
1911-1919-
Emilio Zapata leads the Mexican revolt of peasant and workers
dispossesed durign the Diaz era in the southwestern stae of Morelos. <br />
<br />
1913 -in Chihuahua Pancho Villa leads a private army of unemployed woorkers and small ranchers against the capital.<br />
<br />
-in the state of Coahuila, Venustianzo Carranza leads an iinsurgency.<br />
<br />
<b>President Huerta and Carranza.</b><br />
<br />
1913<b> </b>
- Madero is assassinated. Victoriano Huerta seizes power and a new
revolutionary movement aimed at land redistribution develops under
Pancho Villa and Zapata. <br />
<br />
1914- the United States sends troops to Vera Cruz for fear of German influence on Mexico.<br />
<br />
1914 <b> </b>
- Huerta resigns. He is viewed with suspicion by the United States for
his alleged pro-German sympathies. Huerta resigns and is succeeded by
Carranza, governor of Cuahuila.<br />
<br />
-Pancho Villa and other revolutionaries turn against Carranza.<br />
<br />
1915- Carranza puts down Villa and his movement.<br />
<br />
1916- Mexican writer Mariano Azuela (1873-1952) publishes <i>Los De Abajo</i> about peasant soldiers sacrificed in the revolutionary war. <br />
<br />
<b>US Intervention; pursuit of Pancho Villa.</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b>1916<b> </b> - US forces cross the border in pursuit of the guerrilla leader Francisco "Pancho" Villa.<br />
<br />
<br />
-"Zimmerman
telegram" intercepted by the British reveals a secret German proposal
to Mexico to wit: if the US enters the war against Germany, Germany, in
alliance with Mexico will take back all lost Mexican territories from
Texas to California. <b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
1917<b> </b> - US forces
withdraw, having failed to kill Villa. A new, nationalistic quasi-
soocialist constitution is adopted by President Carranza, which is
designed to ensure land redistribution and permanent democracy in
Mexico. It is still the constitution today.<br />
<br />
-laws are passed to control the sale, use and trafficking of drugs. Most drug traffickign takes place in the Baja- Tijuana area.<br />
<br />
1919- death of Zapata.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>1920<b> </b> - Carranza is murdered. Civil war follows but the Cranza constitution of 1917 stands. <br />
<br />
-marijuana cuultivation is prohibited.<br />
<br />
<b>National Revolutionary Party Consolidates the Revolution.</b><br />
<br />
The
National Revolutionary Party is formed by President Ellias Calles. It
dominates the government, crushing opposition including military
revolts, implementing reform by force.<br />
<br />
<br />
- NRP
leader Plutarco Ellias Calles manages some land reform but becomes
conservative due to opposition from the Church, labour and the military.<br />
<br />
1923- death of Pancho Villa. <b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
1926- poppy cultivation is prohibited.<br />
<br />
<b>President Cardenas and The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) </b><br />
<b> </b> <br />
<b> </b>1929<b> </b> - the NRP is re-named the Instiutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).<br />
<br />
1934-1940-
under President Lazaro Cardenas the PRI consolidates, applies the
revolution through collective economics and land reform (17,8 hectares
to 800,000 people through communally owned <i>ejidos</i>. Mexican oil companies nationalized and farms collectivized in state cooperatives. <br />
<br />
-Cardenas reorganizes the PRI as the Mexican Revolutionary Party (MRP) so that it represents every class and sector of society.<br />
<br />
<b>Industry and Nationalization of Oil.</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b>1934 <b> </b> - President Lazaro Cardenas begins programme of oil nationalisation, land reform and industrial expansion.<br />
<br />
1938- Cardenas expropriates foreign-owned oil companies. <br />
<br />
-marijuana,
opium and the cultivation, production and sale of other drugs is
healthy throughout Mexico, much of it under the protection of state
governors and military authorities.<br />
<br />
<b>Long Period of Mexican Economic Expansion.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1940-1970- rapid growth of the Mexican economy.<b> </b><br />
<br />
1940<b> </b> - Leon Trotsky murdered by Mecader in Mexico.<br />
<br />
-industry emphasized over agriculture. Gross national product increases dramatically at the expense of equality.</div>
<div class="ibox">
-Mexico City's Torre Mayor, Latin America's tallest building.</div>
<div class="bo">
<br />
1942<b> </b> - Mexico joins the allies, declares war on Japan and Germany.<br />
<br />
-Mexico
sends 300,000 labourers to help the US war effort, beginning a
tradition of migrant Mexan labour passing into the the southern US,
sending money home and providing cheap labour for the US.<br />
<br />
<b>President Aleman.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1946-1952 - President Aleman<br />
<br />
1946- Aleman formally reorganizes the MRP into the PRI<br />
<br />
-anti-inflationary
policy brings prosperity into the 1970s but social tensions increase
between of widening gap between rich and poor.<br />
<br />
1947- scadal erupts as the governor of Sinaloa is implicated in alleged drug trafficking.<br />
<br />
<b>I940 Economic Miracle declines with Inequality.</b><br />
<br />
-drug
trafficking in Mexico is protected by patronage and cronyism in the
PRI which has permanent control over the entire country. Sinaloa remains
the most prominent centre of drug trafficking- most of the transport
being done by plane throughout northwestern Mexico. Authorities try and
fail to shut it down.<br />
<br />
1960s <b>- </b>economic decline.<br />
<br />
- unrest amongst peasants and labourers over unequal wealth distribution is suppressed. <br />
<br />
-the marijuana and opium trade from Sinaloa and Chihuahua into the United States grows exponentially.<br />
<br />
1968<b> </b>
- Student demonstration in Tlatelolco, Mexico City, during the Olympic
Games is fired upon by Mexican security forces. Hundreds of protestors
are killed or wounded. The extent of the violence shocks the country.<br />
<br />
<b>President Echeverria Pushes Country to the Left.</b><br />
<br />
1970s- President Juan Echeverria brings in price controls on some food products to help the poor.<br />
<br />
-Echeverria
plans to make Mexico the leading nation of the Third World, with Mexico
as the model of big government. He increases the state's part in the
economy to 50% and the number of state-owned enterprises from 86 to 740.<br />
<br />
-hyperinflation, flight of foreign capital and crisis in balance of payments arise as a consequence of Echeveria's policies. <br />
<br />
<b>Lopez Portillo Brings back the Free Market. Discovery of oil.</b> <br />
<br />
-Mexican military launches Operation Condor, an unprecedented but unsuccessful attempt to wipe out the drug traffic.<br />
<br />
1976-1982
Lopez Portillo elected president. he brings back free market policies.
Nevertheless he is saddled with the costly, immense bureaucracy
guaranteed by the entrenched ruling party, PRI.<b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
1976 - Huge offshore oil reserves discovered; the Cantarell field becomes the mainstay of Mexico's oil production. <br />
<br />
-Pedro Diaz Parada begins his career as head of the Oaxaca drug cartel by planting marijuana in his native Oaxaca.<br />
<br />
-the Mexican economy recovers.<br />
<br />
1979- John Paul II gives blessing to the Latin American tidal wave of <i>religiosidad popular</i>
by placing the Mexican people under the protection of a native Indian
Madonna on a visit to the Shrine of the Virgin of Guadeloupe.<b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
1980s- Mexico carries a massive foreign debt. <br />
<br />
<b>Fall of Price of Oil Brings Economic Downturn.</b><br />
<br />
1981- economy sufferes from decline in the price of oil.<br />
<br />
1982- unable to meet its interest payments on its foreign debt, Mexico nationalizes the banks. <b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
<b>De La Madrid Liberalizes the economy.</b><br />
<br />
1982-1988- President Miguel de la Madrid adopts economic liberalization and privatization of state companies.<br />
<br />
-the Mexican economy blends with the North-East Pacific economy of the western US, Alaska and western Canada. <b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
<b>lllegal Migrants Crossing to US. </b><br />
<br />
-illegal Mexican migrants flocking to California and other border states. <b><br />
</b><br />
<br />
1984- American DEA agent Enrique Camarena and
Mexican pilot Afredo Zavala discover the immense 12 square kilometre
marijuana plantation, 'The Buffalo' in the state of Chihuahua. <br />
<br />
1985<b> </b> - Earthquake in Mexico City kills thousands and makes many more homeless.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Feb
7- American DEA agent Enrique Camarena and Mexican pilot Afredo Zavala
are kidnapped by drug traffickers in Guadalajara, now an international
hub of the drug trade. Their bodies are found a month later.<br />
<br />
-Columbian
drug Lord Pablo Escobar switches to Mexico for drug transit (Mexico
already had its own traffickign netowrks in place) after US law
enforcement tightens up on Florida and the Caribbean.<br />
<br />
<b>PRI begins to lose its Monopoly on Power.</b><br />
<br />
-De la Madrid addresses growing economic problems with mixed policies of politcal pluralization, limiting the power if the PRI.<br />
<br />
1985- Mexico signs an agreement promising to restructure its debt.<br />
<br />
-nevertheless Mexico's foregin debt continues to grow.<br />
<br />
1985-
Pedro Diaz Parada, the head of the Oaxaca cartel of Oaxaca and Chiapas
in southern Mexico, is arrested and sentenced to 33 years.<br />
<br />
-Columbian
drug lords begin paying Mexican traffickers in kind rather than cash-
often 30 tlo 50% of the cocaine shipped, thus laying the foundations for
the Mexican drug traffick.<br />
<br />
-1980s- the Familia
Michoacan drug Cartel is founded as a vigilante group to bring law and
order to Michoacan state and to aid the poor.<br />
<br />
1987- Pedro Diaz Parada of the Oaxaca Cartel escapes from prison.<br />
<br />
-Antonio Eziquiel Cardenas, begins drug trafficking career with Gulf Cartel, headed by his brother Oziel Cardenas.<br />
<br />
1988-1994- President Carlos Salinas Gotari- conintues De La Madrid policy of political pluralism. <br />
<br />
<br />
1989-
the arrest of Mexico's biggest drug lord, Miguel Angel Felix Gallardo
of the Sinaloa gang, touches off the drug war which has never really
ended, as rival cartels fought one another to obtain his place and his
networks. Drug cartels begin strategically to use the police as well as
corrupt police officials against one another and what often amounts to a
three way battle between police and rival cartels.<br />
<br />
1989-
After a fallling out, Tijuana associates of Sinaloa drug boss El Chapo
Guzman attempt to murder him at Tijuana airport but accidentally killed
Cardinal Juan Jesus Posadas Ocamp instead. Guzman, now on the run, ends
up in Guatemala where he is arrested. <br />
<br />
1992- PRI loses in several state elections.<br />
<br />
<br />
1992- Pedro Diaz Parada of the Oaxaca Cartel, sentenced in 1985 and escaping jail in 1987, escapes a second time.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Mexico, US and Canada joined in North</b> <b>American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<b> </b><br />
1993<b> </b>
- Mexican parliament ratifies the North American Free Trade Agreement
(Nafta) with the US and Canada- the agreement is a threat to small
businesses.<br />
<br />
-Salinas carries out democratization of the political system through reform of the constitution.<br />
<br />
<b> Chiapas Rebels Against NAFTA Threat to Local Culture, Economy. </b><br />
<b> </b> <br />
<b> </b>1994<b> </b>- uprising in Chiapas due in part to the threat of NAFTA to local Indian culture, business and small farmers.<br />
<br />
-a
guerrilla rebellion in Chiapas by the Zapatista National Liberation
Army is brutally suppressed by government troops. The rebels oppose
Nafta and want greater recognition for Indian rights. The government
recognises the Zapatista National Liberation Front (EZLN).<br />
<br />
March 23- presidential candidate Puis Donaldo Colosio is assassinated.<br />
<br />
<b>Zedillo of the PRI wins Violent Election followed by crash of Peso.</b><br />
<br />
<b> </b>1994-
August - Presidential elections won by PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo
Ponce de Leon, after the previous candidate, Luis Donaldo Colosio, was
murdered. The stock market plunges in December, the peso loses a third
of its value.<br />
<br />
-US President Clinton sends a $20 billion
credit guarantee to prevent the collapse of the Mexican economy and
NAFTA along with it.. <br />
<br />
<b> </b>1995 <b> </b> - Former President Carlos Salinas goes into exile after his brother Raul Salinas is connected with Colosio's murder.<br />
<br />
1990s-
with the demise of the Medellin and Cali drug cartels, the trafficking
of drugs between South and Central America thrives in Mexico, but the
government takes little decicive action.<br />
<br />
-the Familia Michoacan becomes the paramilitary arm of the Gulf Cartel, intended to control the drug trade in Michoacan.<br />
<br />
-Guero, Palma and "Chapo" Guzman step into the shoes of imprisoned Felix Gallardo as heads of the Sinaloa cartel.<br />
<br />
-the Gulf cartel of Tamaulipas emerges as one of Mexico's major drug gangs, hiring a an armed mercenary group, Los Zetas.<br />
<br />
<b>Agreement Reached on Chiapas.</b> </div>
<br />
1995<b> </b> November - The government and the EZLN reach an agreement on greater autonomy for the indigenous Mayans of Chiapas. <br />
<div class="bo">
<br />
1996 <b> </b> - The insurgency in the south escalates as the leftist Popular Revolutionary Army (EPR) attacks government troops.<br />
<br />
1997-
Carrillo Fuentes, drug lord of Juarez dies under surgery in Mexico
City. Immediately Sinaloa boss El Chapo Guzman and Gulf Cartel boss
Osiel Cardenas Guillen move in to take over the Ciudad Juarez territory.<br />
<br />
1997- the Arellano-Felix or Tijuana Cartel in Tijuana starts a war to control the border drug trade in Tijuana and Jalisco.<br />
<br />
<b>The PRI Finally Loses Power.</b><br />
<br />
1997<b> </b>
- The PRI suffers heavy losses in elections and loses its overall
majority in the lower house of parliament for the first time since 1929.
<br />
<br />
1997<b> </b> December - 45
Indians killed by paramilitary gunmen in a Chiapas village. The incident
causes an international outcry, President Zedillo starts an
investigation.<br />
<br />
-Mexico experiences a brief lull in the drug wars.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b> </b>1998<b> </b> January - Governor of Chiapas resigns. Peace talks with the rebels are reactivated, but break down at the end of the year. <br />
<br />
<b>Fox elected President for Right of Centre Opposition.</b><br />
<b> </b> <br />
<b> </b>2000 <b> </b>
July - Vicente Fox of the opposition Alliance for Change wins
presidential elections, the first opposition candidate ever to do so.
Parliamentary elections see the Alliance for Change emerge as the
strongest party, beating the PRI by just over 1%. </div>
<br />
<div class="bo">
<br />
2000<b> </b> December - Vicente Fox is sworn in as president.<br />
<br />
-with
the PRI out of power, the pervasive government party's 70 year quiet
toleration and sweet-heart deals with drug trasffickers is at an end.
Fox brings in an area of independent government opposition to the drug
cartels <br />
<br />
<br />
-Fox sends troop detachments to Nuevo Laredo and Tamaulipas on the US border to fight drug cartels.<br />
<br />
<b>Zapatistas of Chiapas Renew their Demands.</b> <br />
<br />
<b> </b>2001<b> </b>
March - Zapatista guerrillas, led by Subcomandante Marcos, stage their
'Zapatour', a march from Chiapas to Mexico City to highlight their
demands.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>2001<b> </b>
April - Parliament passes a bill increasing the rights of indigenous
people. A few days later, Subcomandante Marcos rejects the bill, saying
it leaves the Indian population worse off than before. Marcos says the
uprising in Chiapas will continue.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>2001<b> </b>
November - President Fox appoints a prosecutor to investigate the
disappearance of left-wing activists during the 1970s and 1980s.<br />
<br />
2001- Sinaloa drug boss El Chapo Guzman escapes prison in a laundry van.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>2002<b> </b> March - Roberto Madrazo wins the contest to lead the PRI, which governed for 71 years until 2000. <br />
<br />
<b>Political Violence of Past uncovered </b> </div>
<div class="bo">
<br />
2002<b> </b>
June - Millions of secret security files are released, shedding light
on the torture and killing by security forces of hundreds of political
activists in the 1960s and 1970s. President Fox says his government is
not afraid to pursue prosecutions.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>2002<b> </b>
July - Former President Luis Echeverria is questioned about massacres
of student protesters in 1968, when he was interior minister, and in
1971 when he was president. <br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
2002<b> </b> September - Three army officers are charged with first-degree murder over the killings of 134 leftists in the 1970s.<br />
<br />
2003- Oaxaca Cartel joins with the Tijuana Cartel.<br />
<br />
March-
arrest by Mexican police of Gulf cartel leader Osiel Cardenas leads
Sinaloa cartel, under the leadership of Mexico's wealthiest and most
wanted drug baron, Joaquin "El Chapo" Guzman, to challenge the Gulf
cartel's control of the Southwest Texas Drug Corridor.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>2004<b> </b>
July - Investigator deems 1971 shooting of student protesters by
government forces to have been genocide; judge refuses to order arrest
of former President Luis Echeverria on charges that he ordered the
attack.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Genocide trial against former president Luis Echeverria is suspended. <br />
<br />
<b> Drug Gangs in Prisons Murder Jailers.</b> <br />
<br />
<b> </b>2005<b> </b>
January - Six prison officers are murdered and top-security jails are
put on high alert amid escalating tension between the authorities and
drug gangs. <br />
<br />
Jan-Aug- the Sinaloa and Gulf Cartels engage in their own battle killing 100 in Nuevo Laredo alone. <br />
<br />
<br />
-violence increases as the cartels struggle to establish themselves in the state of Michoacan.<br />
<br />
2005<b> </b>
April - Political furore as Mexico City mayor and presidential
favourite Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador is stripped of his immunity from
prosecution by Congress in a land dispute. The government eventually
abandons the prosecution. </div>
<div class="bo">
<br />
<b>The Murdered Women of Ciudad Juarez.</b> <br />
<br />
2006<b> </b>
February - A federal post of special prosecutor is created to tackle
violent crime against women. Mexico had been criticised by the UN and
rights groups over the unsolved murders of more than 300 women over 12
years in the border city of Ciudad Juarez.<br />
<br />
<br />
-65 miners are killed in an explosion at a coal mine in Coahuila state. President Fox orders an investigation. <br />
<br />
<b>Left Wing Obrador Disputes Election Victory of Calderon.</b><b> </b><br />
<br />
2006<b> </b>
July - Conservative candidate Felipe Calderon is declared the winner of
presidential elections with a razor-thin majority over his leftist
rival, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador, who challenges the result with mass
street protests. The Federal Electoral Tribunal confirms Mr Calderon's
win in September. <br />
<br />
<br />
2006 <b> </b>
October - US President George W Bush signs legislation to build 1,125km
(700 miles) of fencing along the US-Mexico border. Mexico condemns
plans for the barrier, which is intended to curb illegal immigration. <br />
In the fall, <br />
<br />
<br />
-Los
Zetas, corrupt military commandos and formerly the mercenary army of
the Gulf Cartel, rise to acceptance as the Gulf Cartel's partners.
Meanwhile, the Familia Michoacan, trained with the Zetas, forms its own
cartel, turning to rivalry against the Zetas and the Baltran y Leyva
cartels.<br />
<br />
-the Michoacan cartel developes strong
partnerships with the Sinaloa and Tijuana cartels, making the Michoacan
one of the strongest in Mexico.<br />
<br />
-Los Negros, the armed wing of the Sinaloa Cartel is formed to resist Los Zetas. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Surge in War on Drugs </b> <br />
<br />
<br />
2006<b> </b>
December - A new federal police force is created to tackle drugs
cartels; thousands of troops are deployed in the western state of
Michoacan as part of a major anti-drug trafficking drive.<br />
<br />
-Mexican
drug Cartels have become the major supppliers of cannabis, heroin,
cocaine and methamphetamine to the United States and in Mexico are
beginning to control regions and municipalities by force and by
intervention in state elections.<br />
<br />
Dec 11 President-Elect
Calderon intervenes directly in the drug war by sending 6,500 troops to
Michoacan, directly west of Mexico City, this inaugurating Mexico's
government militaty offensive on the cartels.<br />
<br />
<b>Head of Oaxaca Cartel Arrested</b><br />
<br />
2007-January-
Pedro Diaz Parada, the head of the Oaxaca cartel of Oaxaca and Chiapas
in southern Mexico, is arrested by Federal police a third time, having
been arrested before, in 1985 and 1990. <br />
<br />
-February - New law obliging authorities to take tougher action against domestic violence comes into effect.<br />
<br />
<b>War Between Sinaloa and Juarez Cartels.</b><br />
<br />
-beginning
of a long-running battle between the Juarez and Sinaloa Cartels for a
major drug route leading into the US through the border town of Ciudad
Juarez.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>2007<b> </b>
July - A financial website says that Mexican telecoms tycoon Carlos
Slim has overtaken Microsoft founder Bill Gates to become the world's
richest person. </div>
<div class="bo">
<br />
2008- Jan- March
-El Chapo Guzman, chief of tthe Sinaloa Cartel launches an offensive to
expel the Juarez Cartel from Ciudad Jarez. Between then and fall, 2010,
7,000 will die in Juarez and environs due to the drug war.<br />
<br />
2008-
April General Sergio Aponte, in charge of anti-drug operations in Baja
California, alleges that the cartels are assisted by police corruption,
bribery and intimidation. </div>
<div class="bo">
<br />
April
26- a pitched battle between the Sinaloa and Tijuana drug cartels in
Tijuana, Baja Califirnia leaves 17 dead. Gang wars in boider towns are
now threatenign border towns on the American side.</div>
<div class="bo">
<br />
<b>Old Tijuana Cartel in Decline.</b><br />
<br />
-Tijuana
cartel, once powerful, is in decline due to arrests of much of its
leadership and is entering a partnership with the Gulf Cartel. <br />
<br />
May,
2008 -former Sinaloa boss Guzman ally Arturo Beltran escapes police
ambush outside Acapulco and sunsequently escapes arrest due corrupt
police working for the narcotrafficantes.<br />
<br />
-the Beltran Leyva cartel leaves it alliance with the Sinaloa cartel to join Las Zetas.</div>
<div class="bo">
<br />
August 2008- 12 decapitated bodies bearing dragon tattoos found in Yucatan. The heads are never found. <br />
<br />
-September, drug cartel grenade attacks leave 8 dead in Morelia.</div>
<br />
<br />
<b>Sharp Rise in Drug Violence.</b><br />
<br />
-Drug-related violence rises sharply in 2008 and 2009<br />
<br />
2009- March- Calderon calls 5,000 more federal troops into Ciudad Juarez.<br />
<br />
-the
US Department of Homeland Security considers the us of National Guard
troops to protect US border towns. Texas and Arizona call for National
Guard protection.<br />
<br />
-July 11- the Familia Michoacan
attacks serveral police stations in Morela in an attempt to free one of
their members, Rueda Medina.<br />
<br />
<img height="393" id="irc_mi" src="http://geo-mexico.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/STRATFOR-Mexican-drug-cartels-map.jpg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="552" /> <br />
<br />
<img border="0" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiY-gz_4Gh0CMa9d7ZU3_zAqXHlouF-1ak-2Acc_RRAe59QvYU_RXUqpYRnayRx0m_eJkpG2H37LuceVgh9ho5MWf08jjGqvq7NWKeqfdEHfNyodsSXaCM56hsoGh5tjU1rqp-wqkFYrMo/s400/Map-of-Mexican-drug-cartels_full_600.jpg" width="400" /> <br />
Both maps: Drug traffic (above) and drug cartels (below), 2009. (Stratfor)<br />
<br />
-July 14- The Familia
Michoacan cartel, which operates a parallel government in the state of
Michoacan, tortures and kills 12 police agents, leaving their bodies
along road sides. <br />
<br />
<b>Sinaloa Chief one of World's Most Powerful People.</b><br />
<br />
Guzmán Loera has been ranked by Forbes<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes"></a></i> magazine as one of the most powerful people in the world every year since 2009.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>US attacks Michoacana Cartel inside US borders.</b><br />
<br />
2009- -Oct 22- the US launches Project
Coronado, seizing tons of weapons and drugs and arresting 303
individuals working for the Michoacan Cartel inside the United States. <br />
<br />
-December-
Arturo Beltran, head of Beltran Leyva cartel surrounded and killed by a
team of Government Navy commandos, chosen presumably for its lack of
corruption.<br />
<br />
2010- February 1- prisoners hired as gunmen
are let out of prison in a secret deal between the warden and a cartel,
proceeding to kill 10 in a bar in Coahuila. <br />
<br />
February-
the Michoacana Familia Cartel joins the Gulf Cartel against the Beltran
Leyva and Los Zetas cartels in a war in the border region of
Tamaulipas.<br />
<br />
2010- -Antonio Eziquiel Cardenas of the Gulf
cartel is in charge of drug trafficking and financial operations in
Matamoros and the Matamoros-Brownsville, Texas, drug corridor.<br />
<br />
<b>Government Attempts to Invest in Crime-ridden border States.</b><br />
<br />
-government
launches a social investment program in Ciudad Juarez and the border
region to fight the problem of drug trafficking.<br />
<br />
-the
Gulf Cartel and the Los Zetas Cartel have a falling out and engage in
gun battles across the state of Tamaulipas, wreaking havic in the
state's NE border towns. <br />
<br />
<b>US Consular Officials Murdered in Bodrer Area.</b><br />
<br />
2010- March- three people connected
with US consulate in Ciudad Juaraz are murdered, prompting President
Calderon to demand US cooperation and partnership in the war on
drugs in the border region. <br />
<br />
May- Sinaloa Cartel alleged to have infiltrated the Mexican army and government in a bid to wipe out the other cartels.<br />
<br />
<b>Police and Military in Pay of Sinaloa Cartel.</b><br />
<br />
May-
allegations surface that elements of the police and military are in the
pay of the Sinaloa cartel. The low arrest rate for Sinaloa members may
be evidence of protection from within the government.<br />
<br />
<br />
2010- June 11- 19 are murdered at a Ciudad Juarez drug rehabilitation centre.<br />
<br />
<br />
July
30- Ignacio Coronal Villareal, one of the Sinialoa cartel bosses, is
killed in a shootout with Mexican military at his home in Guadalajara.
Four other Sinaloa bosses remain.<br />
<br />
-45,000 government troops are engaged in the war on drugs.<br />
<br />
August-
President Obama signs a law investing $600 million in border security
to stop the flow of illegal immigrants from Mexico.<br />
<br />
<b>Demise of Beltran Levya Cartel</b><br />
<br />
2010- -Edgar Valdez, lord of Beltran Leyva cartel arrested. <br />
<br />
-Beltran Leyva cartel splits into warring factions.<br />
<br />
Aug, 25- 27 migrants found murdered by Los Zetas cartel in Timaulipas near NE border.<br />
<br />
September 30- 18 Acapulco tourists disappear, later found in mass grave.<br />
<br />
2010- Oct. 15- Gunmen attack a party in Ciudad Juarez killing seven.<br />
<i><b> </b></i><i><b> </b></i><br />
Oct 23- 13 massacred at birthday party in Ciudad Juarez in wa between Sinaloa and Juarez cartels.<br />
<br />
Nov. 24- Beltran Leyva cartel dismantled with arrest of gang boss Carlos Montemayor.<br />
<br />
<b>Sinaloa Cartel Claims Beheadings.</b> <b>Zetas Kill US Agent.</b><br />
<br />
2011- Jan. 8- 15 decapitated bodies and heads turn up in supermarket plaza in Acapulco with Chapo Guzman's calling card.<br />
<br />
2011- Feb- ICE Special Agent Jaime Zapata
and his partner Victor Avila are attacked by Zeta gunmen while driving
along Mexico's Highway 57 in an armored Chevy Suburban with diplomatic
license plates. Zapata is killed in the ambush, making him the first
U.S.agent to die in the line of duty in Mexico since 1985.<br />
<br />
<br />
2011- March 3- <span style="word-break: break-word;">President Barack Obama met with Mexican President Felipe Calderon to
smooth over troubles in their drugs war alliance. Calderon pressed Obama
to crack down on US drug consumption and illegal arms sales. After the
meeting it was announced that Mexico and the US agreed to end a ban on
Mexican trucks crossing into the US. The agreement would lead to Mexico
dropping tariffs on $2.4 billion
worth of US pork, cheese, corn and fruits</span><br />
<br />
<b>2011</b> April - Thousands participate in protests across Mexico
against drug-related violence. The marches are called by Mexican poet
Javier Sicilia, whose son was murdered in March 2011; protests continue
throughout the summer.<br />
<br />
<b>Mass Murders by Zetas.</b><br />
<br />
2011- April- Mexican investigators pull 193 bodies from dozens of mass graves around
the town of San Fernando, in Tamaulipas state, where gangsters from the
Zetas drug cartel had been abducting passengers from buses and taking
them to remote ranches to be robbed, raped and executed.<br />
<br />
2011- May- Zeta gunmen massacre 27 people at a jungle ranch in northern Guatemala,
as the cartels push deeper into Central America in the competition for
new smuggling routes. Governments in the region, following Mexico's
lead, send their military forces against the traffickers, backed by
growing amounts of U.S. aid. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2011 </b>June-July - Two crime journalists, Miguel Angel Lopez Velasco and Yolanda Ordaz de la Cruz, are killed in separate incidents.<br />
<br />
2011- Last leader of Baltran Levya Cartel arrested- signalling the Ccrtel's slow death.<br />
<br />
<b>2011 </b>August
- An attack on the Casino Royale in Monterrey kills 52 people, after
gunmen douse the building with fuel and set it alight. President
Calderon describes the attack as "an abhorrent act of terror."<br />
<br />
2011- Sept- A gang dumps 35 bodies at a busy intersection in the tourist zone in the
coastal city of Veracruz. Authorities try to calm the public by saying
that most of the dead were criminals who were killed by a warring drug
cartel.<br />
<br />
2012- Jan- Mexican police in the northern city of Torreon find the severed heads of
five people killed in a suspected outbreak of drug gang violence.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>2012- March- </b>Gunmen in Teloloapan, Guerrero ambush and kill 12 policemen who were
investigating the beheadings of 10 people. At least nine other agents
are injured during the incident.<br />
<br />
<b>Earthquake.</b><br />
<br />
2012- March 20- central southern Mexico hit by 7.4 earthquake destroying 500 houses.<br />
<br />
<b>2012</b>
May - The army arrests a drug cartel leader over the killing of 49
people whose mutilated bodies are dumped on a major road in Nuevo Leon
state. The massacre is one of the worst atrocities committed in the
ongoing drug war.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>The Nuevo Laredo Bridge Massacre.</b><br />
<br />
2012-- May- Police find the bodies of nine people hanging from a bridge in Nuevo
Laredo, in Tamaulipas, a message from the Zeta Cartel to the Gulf Cartel. The same day, police also find the dismembered
bodies of 14 people in garbage bags, dumped near the Nuevo Laredo police
station. Later in the month, dozens of mutilated bodies are found
dumped by a highway near Monterrey.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="0yYwN0rmWI7weM:" 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" style="height: 185px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 273px;" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Enrique Pena Nieto Wins Presidential Election.</b><br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>July - The Institutional
Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Enrique Pena Nieto wins the
presidential election, defeating veteran leftwing candidate Andres
Manuel Lopez Obrador and ending 12 years of rightwing National Action
Party (PAN) rule. PAN candidate Josefina Vazquez Mota came a distant
third. Thousands take to the streets to allege vote-buying by the PRI,
and Mr Lopez Obrador launches a legal challenge to the result.<br />
<br />
2012- Aug- Four members of the Sinaloa cartel, including the cousin of Joaquin
Archivaldo Guzman, also known as El Chapo, are arrested in Madrid,
Spain.<br />
<br />
<b>2012 </b>September
- Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador rejects court ruling upholding July's
election and called for a mass demonstration in protest. <br />
<br />
<b>Zeta leader Killed by Troops.</b><br />
<br />
2012- Oct- One of Mexico’s most-wanted drug lords, who founded the super-violent
Zetas criminal organization dies. Zeta leader and founder Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano, alias El Lazcawas killed over the weekend in a firefight
with marines.<br />
<br />
2012- 400,000 Mexicans have been repatriated from the US during 2012.<br />
<br />
<b>President Pena Takes Office.</b> <br />
<br />
2013- Jan- Representing the Industrial Revolutionary Party, President Enrique Pena
Nieto takes office. Formerly the State of Mexico governor, Pena Nieto
vows to reduce the violence that plagues his country, largely the result
of the power of drug cartels.<br />
<br />
July - Miguel Angel Treviño, alias Z-40, leader of Mexico’s most brutal drug cartel, Los Zetas, captured by Mexican police <br />
<br />
<b>Drug Lord Released from Jail.</b><br />
<br />
2013- Aug- Drug lord Caro Quintero released from prison after his conviction in the 1984 murders of two American travelers, and the kidnapping, torture and murder of DEA agent Enrique Camarena and Mexican pilot Afredo Zavala- was overturned. Corruption is strongly suspected. </div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7847063932319754721.post-60067704414584195932013-08-20T18:49:00.000-07:002013-08-21T09:11:57.266-07:00Former Pakistan Dictator and President Pervez Musharraf Charged in the Assassination of Benazir Bhutto.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-3181825584294352967" itemprop="description articleBody">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">HISTORY IN THE NEWS</span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span></i><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">edicated to the background of contemporary events around the world. </span></i><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-weight: bold;"><img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" data-sz="f" name="CvYyRe5HFOPDFM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRBhRFMzAc6TMm_pOOojFECUJMAINLm8KOomZinjT_TuyT5EUNd" style="height: 112px; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -16px; margin-top: 0px; width: 451px;" /> </span></i></div>
<br />
<br />
<b>DEDICATED TO THE ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AROUND THE WORLD.</b><br />
<b><br />
</b><br />
<b><u>PAKISTAN</u></b><br />
<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTlVJ2skoAcsUeiddQujFUT9KRq9jiepNrF6Sxpo8ZADLopDDw-LQ" data-sz="f" name="RU3SWvkpQTguBM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTlVJ2skoAcsUeiddQujFUT9KRq9jiepNrF6Sxpo8ZADLopDDw-LQ" style="height: 173px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -2px; width: 279px;" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>IN BRIEF: </b>There has hardly been legal or criminal charge against a public figure in Pakistan that hasn't been part of a political vendetta.<b> </b> <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>IN THE NEWS: </b><a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2008/08/musharraf-not-to-be-praised-or-mourned.html">PERVEZ MUSHARRAF</a>, FORMER PRESIDENT AND MILITARY<br />
DICTATOR OF PAKISTAN IS INDICTED WITH THE <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2007/12/benazir-bhutto-assassinated.html">2007 MURDER OF PRESIDENTIAL. CANDIDATE BENAZIR BHUTTO. </a> <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/04/pakistan-musharraf-returns-faces-arrest.html">MR. MUSHARRAF, HAS BEEN UNDER HOUSE ARREST </a>SINCE HIS RETURN TO PAKISTAN LAST SPRING. COMMENTATORS AGREE THAT THE CHARGES ARE MURKY, AS ARE THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF MS. BHUTTO'S MURDER DURING A BOMBING WHILE SHE WAS ON CAMPAIGN. SOME SAY THE PRIMARY EVIDENCE RESTS ON A PHONE CALL MUSHARRAF MADE TO ENGLAND BEFORE MS. BHUTTO'S RETURN FROM EXILE, THREATENING HER WITH DEATH IF SHE RETURNED TO PAKISTAN. MS. BHUTTO REPLIED THAT MUSHARRAF COULDN'T STOP HER.OTHERS CITE REVENGE AGAINST MUSHARRAF FOR <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2007/11/pakistans-musharraf-declares-state-of.html">FIRING SUPREME COURT JUSTICES</a> WHILE HE WAS IN POWER.<br />
<br />
<b>WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW:</b><br />
<br />
<b>Musharraf Takes Power in Coup D'Etat.</b><br />
<br />
On October 12, 1999,<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2013/05/pakistan-nawaz-sharif-sweeps.html"> Nawaz Sharif's</a>
government was overthrown by Musharraf in a military coup. Charged with
conspiracy, he faced criminal charges when the Saudi kingdom intervened
and he was allowed to go to exile in Saudi Arabia. In 1999, Musharraf
took power in a bloodless military coup and Sharif went into exile.<br />
<br />
<b>Constructs political Campaign as Dictator</b><br />
In 2002, the ISI helped to form 'the King's party' (PML-Q)
or the coalition of relgious parties that won Musharraff his electoral
majority in his run for president that year. If anything he needed them on side while he fought
the Taliban for Washington. <br />
<br />
<b>Crushes red Mosque, Fires Justice Choudhury.</b><br />
In January, 2007, tensions developed around the Islamist Red Mosque.
Then, in the spring, mass protests erupted against Musharraf's firing of
Pakistan's chief justice, Iftakar Mohammed Choudhury on charges of
misusing his post. Choudhury, an activist judge, had often demanded the
investigation of the country's intelligence services on the issue of
missing persons and other matters involving military rule. It appears
the anger about his dismissal was shared both by Islamist and democratic
opponents of the government.<br />
<br />
<b>Political Opponents Bhutto and Sharif Sidelined.</b> <br />
To
make matters worse for Musharraf, the Supreme Court reinstated
Choudhury. With Musharraff weakened by the Choudhury and Red Mosque
affairs, Benazir Bhutto, in exile in England, chose the moment to gamble
on a return to Pakistan by offering Musharraff a political partnership.
As sole viable opposition leader it seemed a wise move. Moreover the
return of her old adversary, Nawaz Sharif was nipped in the bud when
when Musharraf had him arrested and exiled again at the airport
September 8. <br />
<br />
<b> </b>To
make matters worse for Musharraf, the Supreme Court reinstated
Choudhury. With Musharraff <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2008/01/pakistani-generals-patriots-or.html">weakened </a>by the Choudhury and Red Mosque
affairs, Benazir Bhutto, in exile in England, chose the moment to gamble
on a return to Pakistan by offering Musharraff a political partnership.
As sole viable opposition leader it seemed a wise move. Moreover the
return of her old adversary, Nawaz Sharif was nipped in the bud when
when Musharraf had him arrested and exiled again at the airport
September 8. In October Musharraf won a <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2007/10/musharraf-wins-landslide-in-pakistan.html">landslide election</a>. In November, Mursharraf declared a <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2007/11/pakistans-musharraf-declares-state-of.html">state of emergenc</a>y.<br />
<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b> </b>On December
27, 2008, Bhutto, while campaigning in Rawalindi, was<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2007/12/benazir-bhutto-assassinated.html"> assassinated</a> in a
suicide bombing.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>At the beginning of 2008, Musharraf postponed the election from January 8 to February 19 on
grounds of bad security. In the run-up to the elections, suicide
bombings took dozens of lives. The intention, most likely, was to
prevent what was almost certain to be the return of moderate secular and
moderate relgious parties to power. Nevertheless, Pakistan had the
courage to vote. In the upshot, Musharraf <a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2008/02/musharrsaf-loses-parliamentary-vote.html">lost the election.</a> <b> </b><br />
<b> </b><br />
<b> 2008: Faced with Coalition and Impeachment, Musharraf Resigns.</b><br />
<br />
Immediately the PPP's Asaf Zadari and opposition PML-N leader Nawaz Sharif consider a coalition in order to<a href="http://blackdog2.blogspot.ca/2008/02/bulletin-bhuttos-ppp-determined-to-oust.html"> oust President Musharraf.</a>.
In March, though
Sharif is still prevented from running for office by pending charges for
hijacking. Yusuf Raza Galani is elected Prime Minister and by August,
the agreement by Zardari and Sharif has taken the form of a plan to
impeach Musharraf. Suprisingly, perhaps, Musharraf resigns and in
Septemmber, Zardari is elected president. The army, meanwhile, clears
the Swat Valley in Pakistan. In September, 2008, Bhutto's son, Asif
Zardari is elected President.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>British Exile</b><br />
Having refuge in Britain, former Pakistan president Pervez Musharraf launches political party
from exile, while apologizing for "negative actions while in
power."<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>IN HISTORY:</b><br />
<br />
<br />
In 2007 it seemed that the future of Pakistan was more likely to be played out in the
Supreme Court than on the electoral field. On September 16, the
court declared that a civil servant, contrary to former rulings can run
for office without a mandatory two years absence from his post- clearing
the way for Musharraf to run in elections. He had to abide by a promise
to resign his army post upon taking office. He had to honour a pledge
for Benazir Bhutto to return to Pakistan on October 17 free of
corruption charges in return for having her her PPP party abstain
instead of voting against him. Such was the atmosphere in Pakistan that
Bhutto, arriving from exile in Britain, narrowly escaped death from a
suicide attack on her convoy. On November 3, Musharraf declared a state
of emergency allegedly on the grounds of a conspiracy from religious
militants, though it was generally believed that he was merely
lengthening his rule; and indeed he used the emergency to sack supreme
court justices before they made a decision on the legitimacy of his
election victory while still in uniform. Many of his political opponents
were imprisoned; all political activity was banned; there was a
crackdown on the media and Bhutto was placed under temporary house
arrest to prevent her from leading a rally against the state of
emergency. Musharraf promised elections for the post of Prime Minister
on January 8 but most doubted that they would be free and fair. On
December 15 he ended the state of emergency and restored the
constitution, causing some question as to whether the state of emergency
had indeed been imposed because of a threat from militants.<br />
<br />
On December
27, Bhutto, while campaigning in Rawalindi, was assassinated in a
suicide bombing. Nawaz Sharif was the only significant candidate left
standing in what appeared to be an opposition vacuum, until the PPP
declared Bhutto's 19 year old son her successor at the head of the party
with her widowed husband Asif Ali Zardari acting as regent in what
seems more than ever to be a dynasty. Sharif, meanwhile, instructed his
own party to boycott the January vote. Suspicions that Musharaff,
through negligence or conspiracy allowed the assassination to happen,
resulted in widespread rioting verging on anarchy. At the beginning of
2008, Musharraf postponed the election from January 8 to February 19 on
grounds of bad security. In the run-up to the elections, suicide
bombings took dozens of lives. The intention, most likely, was to
prevent what was almost certain to be the return of moderate secular and
moderate religious parties to power. Nevertheless, Pakistan had the
courage to vote.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>RELEVANT DATES </b>for Musharraf charged in assassiination of Benazir Bhutto.<br />
<br />
<br />
1978- July 29- Ali Bhutto, father of Benazir Bhutto, begins campaigning for his return to power..<br />
<br />
Oct 24.- Bhutto is tried for vote rigging, corruption and the murder of a political opponent.<br />
<br />
<br />
1979- April 4- after being sentenced to death, Bhutto is hanged.<br />
<br />
<br />
1984- Bhutto's daughter, Benazir, exiled to England with her mother, takes leadership of the PPP, the Pakistan People’s Party.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Return of Benazir Bhutto</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1986- Benazir Bhutto returns to Pakistan and campaigns for fair elections. She marries Ali Zardari in 1987.<br />
<br />
<br />
1988- President Zia Ul-Haq killed at Dhaka in a plane crash.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Ul Haq’s successor, President Ishaq Khan brings back democracy.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Benazir Bhutto Prime Minister.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1988-
Aslam Beg of the Inter Services Intelligence Agency (ISI) forms a
coalition of religious parties (the IJI) against Benazir Bhutto. When the
relgious coaltion loses, the ISI throws its support behind her rival,
Nawaz Sharif, then Chief Minister of Punjab.<br />
<br />
1988- Benazir Bhutto elected Prime Minister. She takes Pakistan back into the Commonwealth.<br />
<br />
1990-
constant challenges from a conservative presidency leads to the
dismissal of Benzir’s Bhutto’s government. She is charged with
corruption charges in an offensive believed to be backed by the ISI. Her
husband is also placed under arrest for corruption.<br />
<br />
<b>Benazir Bhutto Ousted.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1990- ISI brokers another coalition against Bhutto and raises large amounts of money to back Nawaz Sharif against Bhutto<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Nawaz Sharif Prime Minister.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
-Nawaz
Sharif succeeds Benazir Bhutto as prime minister in an election
believed to have been rigged with the assistance of the ISI.<br />
<br />
<b></b>
<b>Bhutto re-elected Prime Minister.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1993- Benazir Bhutto leads opposition to Nawaz Sharif,<br />
<br />
<br />
-Bhutto
elected prime minister of a coalition government. Her regime is plagued
by crime, the drugs trade, separatist unrest in Balushistan and Sindh
and tribal unrest in the north west frontier.<br />
<br />
<b>Bhutto Dismissed.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
1996- Benazir Bhutto’s government is dismissed by President Leghari on new charges of corruption and mismanagement.<br />
<br />
<br />
1997- Feb. Benazir Bhutto is defeated in elections. She is succeeded by Nawaz Sharif and becomes leader of the opposition.<br />
<br />
<br />
1999- Benazir Bhutto removed as a member of parliament and along with her husband is tried, fined and sentenced for corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Benazir Bhutto chooses self-imposed exile in Dubai.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Sharif Dismissed in Coup by Musharraf.</b> <br />
<br />
-Sharif withdraws the army from Kashmir and dismisses its head, General Musharraf, angering the army.<br />
<br />
1999-Musharraf dismisses Sharif. Sharif agrees to go into exile rather than face criminal charges.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<br />
<b>General Musharraf seizes power.</b><br />
<br />
-General
Musharraf takes power in a military coup. Musharraf suspends the
constitution, asserts control over the judiciary and parliament.<br />
<br />
2002- -Pakistan's
Inter Services Intelligence Agency (ISI) helps to form the the King's
Party a coalition of Pakistan Muslim parties to back Musharraf's election as
president. The MMA, a large alliance of religious parties, the King's
Party and Bhutto's PPP are the largest parties in parliament.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Musharraf Consolidates Power, extends Dictatorship,</b><br />
<br />
-Musharraf
wins presidential elections. He gains 5 more years in office in a
referendum criticized as unconstitutional and biased. He awards himself
sweeping new powers.<br />
<br />
-after
Musharraf is elected, an ammenndment known as the 'legal framework
order' gives him a five year term plus the power over many civil
institutions and the power to dismiss national and state assemblies. The
MMA is indispensable in getting the 'Legal Framework Order' passed into
law. The parliament becomes Musharraf's instrument.<br />
<br />
2004- Musharraf extends his term as head of the army.<br />
<br />
<b>2007- Musharraf Dismisses Chief Justice Chaudhoury</b><br />
<br />
-9 March-mass protests follow Musharraff’s suspension of Pakistan’s Chief Justice Iftakar Mohammed Choudhury for abuse of power.<br />
<br />
April- protests increase against the dismissal of Justice Choudhury.<br />
<br />
<br />
-12 May- several killed in rival demonstrations in Karachi over the dismissal of Choudhury<br />
<br />
20 July- the Supreme Court reinstates Justice Choudhury of Justice Choudhury.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2007- The Return of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
-23 Aug. the Supreme Court decides exiled oppostion leader Nawaz Sharif can return to Pakistan.<br />
<br />
<br />
Sept.
8- General Musharraf has Sharif arrested upon his return to Pakistan.
Sharif is exiled again to Saudi Arabia- in defiance of the Supreme
Court's August ruling.<br />
<br />
<br />
-14 September- Bhutto says she will return from exile in London in mid-October.<br />
<br />
<br />
-16
September- Pakistan's electoral commission amends a clause stating that
a government servant cannot run for office without first being retired
from their position for two years. A public servant can now run without
leaving office. The amended clause would allow President Musharraf to
run again for president. Musharraf's term as president expires November
15.<br />
<br />
-18 September- presidential lawyers say that Musharraf will step down as army chief only if he is elected president.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Oct.
5-in a deal with Musharraf opposition PPP leader Benazir Bhutto agrees
to abstain rather than to boycott the Pakistan election if the charges
against her are dropped before she returns from exile in London.<br />
<br />
<b></b>
<b>2007- Musharrraf Elected President.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
-Oct. 6- Musharraf sweeps the elections.<br />
<br />
<b></b>
<b>2007- Assassination Attempt on Bhutto Upon her Return.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
-Oct. 12- 2 suicide bombs directed at Bhutto's convoy from airport, kill donzens, upon her return from British exile.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2007- Musharraf Declares State of Emergency.</b><br />
<br />
-November-
Musharraf declares emergency rule claiming Islamist threats to the
government. Opponents charge him with attempting to lengthen his
dictatorship as he uses the emergency to sack the Supreme Court on the
eve of its decision about the legitimacy of his election as president
while still chief of the army.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Bhutto placed under house arrest as she plans a march against emergency rule.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Musharraff says he will work with Bhuttto.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Musharraf brings in a caretaker government.<br />
<br />
<br />
-the chief election commissioner determines that elections for Prime Minister will be held on January 8, 2008.<br />
<br />
-the election commission ratifies Musharraf's second five-year term in office.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2007- Nawaz Sharif allowed to return from exile.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
-Nawaz Sharif allowed to return from exile.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Musharraf hands over command of the Armed Forces to General Ashfaq Kayani.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Bhutto says she may boycott the January 8 election.<br />
<br />
<br />
-December 15- Musharraf ends the state of emergency, restores constitution.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Assassination of Benazir Bhutto</b><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
-December 27- Bhutto is shot to death as suicide bombers hit her retinue after a rally in Rawalpindi.<br />
<br />
<br />
2008- January -Musharraf postpones January 8 elections to February 18 due to instability.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2008- Musharraf Resigns</b><br />
<br />
<br />
August- Musharraf resigns. Senate speaker Muhammed Sumroo takes on the role of acting president.<br />
<br />
<br />
-Asif Ali Zardari, Bhutto's widower declares himself a candidate for presidental elections on<br />
September 6.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2008- Zardari Elected President.</b><br />
<br />
<br />
2008- Aug.- August- The PPP and the PML-N agree to launch impeachment proceedings against General Musharraf.<br />
<br />
<br />
September- Asif Zardari, widower of Benzir Bhutto, is elected President.<br />
<br />
<b>Musharraf goes Into Exile.</b> <br />
<br />
2008- 23 November- Musharraf leaves for exile in London where he arrives the following day,<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2009- Reinstatement of Justice Choudhury.</b><br />
<br />
2009- March- -government
agrees to reinstate Supreme Court Justice Choudhry and other judges
dismissed by Musharraf in the faces of mass protests.<br />
<br />
<br />
The government sacks Balochistan chief minister over bomb
blasts in the provincial capital Quetta that killed at least 92 Shia
Muslims. Sunni extremist group Lashkar-e-Jhangvi claimed responsibility.<br />
Populist cleric and anti-corruption campaigner Tahirul Qadri,
leads a nationwide march on Islamabad, demanding the resignation of the
government.<br />
<br />
After four days of protests in the capital, the government
agrees to dissolve parliament early and to consult Mr Qadri over the
formation of a caretaker government ahead of elections. <br />
<br />
<b>2013 </b>March - Caretaker government appointed to oversee parliamentary elections.<br />
<br />
<b>President Pervez Musharraf Returns for Elections. </b><br />
<br />
<b>2013- </b>March- Gen Musharraf returns from
British exile in March to contest parliamentary elections.
<br />
<br />
<b> </b><br />
<b>2013 </b>April - A court orders the arrest of
Gen Pervez Musharraf over his attempt to impose house arrest on judges
during his military rule in March 2007.<br />
<br />
-Musharraf is confined to house arrest.<br />
<br />
2013- May 3- Supreme Court Justice Cahudry Zulfikar Ali- prosecutor in the 2007 Benazir Bhitto assassination and in the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks- is shot to death<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Nawaz Sharif Prime Minister of Pakistan</b><br />
<br />
<b>2013 </b>June - Parliament approves Nawaz Sharif
as prime minister after his Muslim League-N wins parliamentary
elections in May. Taliban conduct systematic campaign of attacks and
intimidation, but fail to deter largest turnout of voters since 1970. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>PAKISTAN HISTORY.</b><br />
<br />
<b>PAKISTAN: 1840- 2006.</b><br />
While
India began to fall under British control after 1840, the northwestern
or Pakistan region, which centred on the Valley of the Indus River was
mostly Muslim and wasn't formally acquired until the late 19th century.
Northwest India had been relatively content under the British Raj
but it was the Muslims of northern India who fared less well and
consequently formed the Muslim League which distinguished itself from
the larger and mostly Hindu Indian national Congress. This the Muslims
who would in future make up Pakistan, were radicalized. Throughout the
1930s, the Muslim League, led by Mohammed al Jinnah, was increasingly
alarmed by the power and size of the Hindu INC.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="MjRgrAk4IJJ6MM:" 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" style="height: 233px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: -21px; width: 170px;" /> <br />
<br />
<br />
In 1940, with the Lahore
Resolution, the League declared that if the lot of Muslims didn't
improve, Indian Muslims would move for secession. When India became
independent in 1947, the Muslim League, rather than share an India
dominated by the vastly Hindu INC and a Hindu majority, seceded to form
the state of Pakistan in the western region of Baluchistan, Punjab and
the Northwest Frontier.<br />
Pakistan's Governor General was Mohammed
al Jinnah. Two things were highly significant. The first was that
Pakistan's raison d'etre was religious; it was formed as a Muslim state.
Secondly, Pakistan inherited a British-made Indian constitution which
was inadequate to a region which, despite being Muslim was ethnically
diverse.<br />
<br />
In 1956, Pakistan was finally given a
constitution which proclaimed it an Islamic republic. Two years later,
the country's short-lived democracy ended when President Ayub Khan took
power in a coup d'etat. The tension between democracy and dictatorship
would inform all of Pakistan's future history, west-leaning secular
groups tending toward democracy while Muslim religious parties, alarmed
by the threats of modern secularism, tending toward dictatorship. The
idea of an Islamic State, meanwhile, seemed to be the only solution for
an ethnically divided country. The result, time and again, was to be a
dictatorship, to some degree Islamic. Yet that did little to solve
Pakistan's most deep-seated political problem- how do you define Muslim
in a society in which no one agrees on the definition of what it is to
be Muslim? But Islam, undefined, remained the shibboleth. Never a
marginal force, Islamic radicalism was always close to the centre of
power, whether in the army, in government or in the official opposition.
The pattern of secular and Muslim rivalry increased. The secular,
nationalist and populist Ali Bhutto was elected President. In 1977, he
was overthrown by the Islamist General Zia Ul Haq for dividing the
country on his platform of "Islamic socialism." Though Islam would never
find an official definition, attempts at secularized forms of Islam
would only feed the electoral power of the religious zealots who wanted
to exploit the very practice of democracy brought in by westernized
elites, to form a state along the lines of a 7th century Caliphate.
Minorities, even Muslim minorities, suffered; the Muslim Ahmadis, for
example were designated a non-Muslim Minority. Radical Islam
notwithstanding, Bhutto's family was to become a political dynasty and
the accepted spearhead of the secular opposition.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile,
the ever shifting priorities of US foreign policy arrived at support
for the Islamic Mujehadeen of Afghanistan in their resistance to the
Soviet invasion of 1979. Ul Haq's Islamist regime received backing by
Washington in return for help in arming and training the Afghan rebels.
In 1978, Ali Bhutto was executed after being charged with corruption and
murder.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-sz="f" name="1aY_xbsAvF3sPM:" 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" style="height: 163px; margin-left: -15px; margin-top: 0px; width: 310px;" /> <br />
<br />
<br />
His daughter, the Oxford-educated Benazir Bhutto inherited the
mantle of leader of the secular opposition and in 1984 founded the PPP
or Pakistan People'd Party. She and her husband, Asif Ali Zardan like
her father, would endure periods of arrest and exile and repeated
charges of corruption by Islamist parties and governments. In 1988,
General Zia Ul Haq was killed in plane crash, rumoured to be an
assassination. In the same year, Benazir Bhutto was elected Prime
Minister. In 1990 she was ousted on charges of corruption. She was
succeeded as prime minister by Nawaz Sharif, chief councillor of Punjab
province. Sharif took on the President's right to fire the Prime
Minister head on. A forceful fiscal conservative, he faced down the
president and the judiciary, eventually giving the position of prime
minister almost despotic power. (Born in 1949 in Lahore, Sharif was the
son of a Punjab indistrialist. He obtained a law degree and in 1981
became Finance minister for Punjab where he singificantly advanced rural
development. In 1985, he became Chief minister of Punjab. On March 31
1988, he was made caretaker after President Zia Ul Haq dismissed both
houses of parliament.) In 1988, the year Bhutto was elected, Sharif was
re-elected in Punjab before running for Prime Minister on a
conservative, anti-corruption platform. In 1990 Bhutto was ousted on
charges of corruption. After the election of Sharaf as Prime Minister in
November 1990, he worked with the private sector to strengthen
Pakistan's industry and land reform for the peasants of Sindh. Despite
US sanctions, he achieved economic progress. But in April, 1993, he was
dismissed by the president. He was reinstated by the judiciary but after
corruption allegations he had to resign along with the president in
July.<br />
<br />
In 1993 Benazir Bhutto was re-elected. Meanwhile, the MML, a
powerful alliance of religious parties, was expressly formed by the ISI
to block the election of any secular party as well as to gather or to
fabricate corruption charges against Benazir Bhutto. In 1996, Bhutto was
duly dismissed, again on charges of corruption. In 1997, Sharif was
re-elected prime minister and used his overwhelming majority to strip
the president of his constitutional power to dismiss the Prime minister.
Sharif made the the position of Prime Minister all-powerful, indeed
unassailable to the point of dissenting from the Chief Justice. As a
result, the president resigned and the supreme court justice was
removed. In 1998, in response to social unrest, he suspended many civil
liberties and set up military courts. Throughout his career he had
already had several run-ins with chiefs of the military. In 1998, Sharif
appointed General Musharraf to head the army. But Sharif angered the
army by resisting pressure to give it political power, pulling it out of
confrontation with India in Kashmir at the behest of the United States
and dismissing its head, General Pervez Musharraf. In February 1999,
Sharif signed the Lahore Declaration to normalize relations with India.
Under pressure from US president Clinton, he withdrew the army from
confrontation with India in Kashmir. Electricity shortages led him to
put the army in charge of water and power but rumours of selling out to
the generals led him to fire Musharraff.<br />
<br />
On October 12, 1999, Sharif's
government was overthrown by Musharraf in a military coup. Charged with
conspiracy, he faced criminal charges when the Saudi kingdom intervened
and he was allowed to go to exile in Saudi Arabia. In 1999, Musharraf
took power in a bloodless military coup and Sharif went into exile.
After Al Qaeda's attacks on the United States on 9/11, Musharraf was
coerced into supporting Washington's War on Terror, a campaign which
would in fact amount to a war against radical Islam in Pakistan and
Afghanistan. The US invaded Afghanistan and overthrew the Taliban
obliging Musharraf to take up its fight against the Taliban resistance
as well as al Qaeda, which had taken refuge in Pakistan's
semi-autonomous tribal agencies. Musharraf, still presiding over an army
which was at least in part Islamist and traditionally allied with the
religious parties, as well as powerful Islamist elements in the ISI
intelligence service, has had to walk a tightrope, on the one hand
supporting Washington against the Taliban and al Qaeda and on the other,
placating the religious parties and Islamist elements in his own
government. In 2002, the ISI helped to form 'the King's party' (PML-Q)
or the coalition of relgious parties that won Musharraff his electoral
majority that year. If anything he needed them on side while he fought
the Taliban for Washington.<br />
<br />
<img class="rg_i" data-src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQYDpTCxHEWjl6cbFCZdybYm5xUNYx1-JDQyVjnvsbs8-ZqLblrDQ" data-sz="f" name="fH-1ZY-_bY4qKM:" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQYDpTCxHEWjl6cbFCZdybYm5xUNYx1-JDQyVjnvsbs8-ZqLblrDQ" style="height: 191px; margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 264px;" /> <br />
Marsharraf sent the army into Waziristan
after the Taliban in the winter of 2003-2004. They were so badly mauled
by the Taliban and its tribal alllies among the Mahsuds and Waziris that
two peace deals were stuck, in 2004 and February 2005, leaving
Waziristan and effective Taliban "Emirate". By a September 2006 peace
deal, by which the Waziristan Taliban would restrict their operations to
Afghanistan and refrain from attacking Pakistani forces , Pakistan
withdrew its troops to their bases. In Kashmir, meanwhile, Musharraf has
cracked down on Islamist Kashmir separatists and made half-hearted
attempts to stop the Afghan Taliban insurgency from hiding out in
Pakistan. Faced on the other hand with a strong moderate, secular
movement, he was been forced, nevertheless, to turn his attention to the
development of a powerful Islamist cell in the Red Mosque, in central
Islamabad, right under the nose of his intelligence agencies. bloc which
has in turn prevented him from cracking down too hard on the Taliban.<br />
<br />
<br />
SEE ALSO - MUMBAI TERRORISTS TRACED TO PAKISTAN: 11/27/08<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
PREVIOUS ENTRIES ON PAKISTAN:<br />
<br />
3/27/09 Afghan Supply lines (from Pakistan) at root of Canadian deaths.<br />
<br />
2/26/09 The Talban's Ancient Geopolitics.<br />
9/10/08 Zardari elected Prime Minister.<br />
8/18/08 Musharraf not to be praised or mourned.<br />
3/25/08- PPP's Gillani is president of Pakistan.<br />
2/20/08- Musharraf loses parliamentary vote.<br />
12/27/07- Benazir Bhutto assassinated.<br />
11/03/07 -Musharraf declares state of emergency.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>PAKISTAN, 2007 UNTIL 2013</b>:
In January, 2007, tensions developed around the Islamist Red Mosque.
Then, in the spring, mass protests erupted against Musharraf's firing of
Pakistan's chief justice, Iftakar Mohammed Choudhury on charges of
misusing his post. Choudhury, an activist judge, had often demanded the
investigation of the country's intelligence services on the issue of
missing persons and other matters involving military rule. It appears
the anger about his dismissal was shared both by Islamist and democratic
opponents of the government. Meanwhile, weeks of conflict involving
Pakistan's Islamist extremists finally culminated in the army's assault
on the Red Mosque and the killing of most of its radical defenders which
led in turn to counter-attacks by Islamists all around the counrty. To
make matters worse for Musharraf, the Supreme Court reinstated
Choudhury. With Musharraff weakened by the Choudhury and Red Mosque
affairs, Benazir Bhutto, in exile in England, chose the moment to gamble
on a return to Pakistan by offering Musharraff a political partnership.
As sole viable opposition leader it seemed a wise move. Moreover the
return of her old adversary, Nawaz Sharif was nipped in the bud when
when Musharraf had him arrested and exiled again at the airport
September 8.<br />
<br />
The future of Pakistan is more likely being played in the
Supreme Court than it is on the electoral field. On September 16, 2007, the
court declared that a civil servant, contrary to former rulings can run
for office without a mandatory two years absence from his post- clearing
the way for Musharraf to run in elections. He had to abide by a promise
to resign his army post upon taking office. He had to honour a pledge
for Benazir Bhutto to return to Pakistan on October 17 free of
corruption charges in return for having her her PPP party abstain
instead of voting against him. Such was the atmosphere in Pakistan that
Bhutto, arriving from exile in Britain, narrowly escaped death from a
suicide attack on her convoy. On November 3, Musharraf declared a state
of emergency allegedly on the grounds of a conspiracy from religious
militants, though it was generally believed that he was merely
lengthening his rule; and indeed he used the emergency to sack supreme
court justices before they made a decision on the legitimacy of his
election victory while still in uniform. Many of his political opponents
were imprisoned; all political activity was banned; there was a
crackdown on the media and Bhutto was placed under temporary house
arrest to prevent her from leading a rally against the state of
emergency. Musharraf promised elections for the post of Prime Minister
on January 8 but most doubted that they would be free and fair. On
December 15 he ended the state of emergency and restored the
constitution, causing some question as to whether the state of emergency
had indeed been imposed because of a threat from militants.<br />
<br />
On December
27, Bhutto, while campaigning in Rawalindi, was assassinated in a
suicide bomibing. Nawaz Sharif was the only significant candidate left
standing in what appeared to be an opposition vacuum, until the PPP
declared Bhutto's 19 year old son her successor at the head of the party
with her widowed husband Asif Ali Zardari acting as regent in what
seems more than ever to be a dynasty. Sharif, meanwhile, instructed his
own party to boycott the January vote. Suspicions that Musharaff,
through negligence or conspiracy allowed the assassination to happen,
resulted in widespread rioting verging on anarchy. At the beginning of
2008, Musharraf postponed the election from January 8 to February 19 on
grounds of bad security. In the run-up to the elections, suicide
bombings took dozens of lives. The intention, most likely, was to
prevent what was almost certain to be the return of moderate secular and
moderate religious parties to power. Nevertheless, Pakistan had the
courage to vote.<br />
<br />
<b>2008: MUSHARRAF RESIGNS AMID INPEACHMENT PROCEEDINGS.</b><br />
<br />
<b>Immediately the PPP's Asaf Zadari and opposition PML-N leader Nawaz Sharif </b>consider
a coaltion in order to oust President Musharraf. In March, though
Sharif is still prevented from running for office by pending charges for
hijacking. Yusuf Raza Galani is elected Prime Minister and by August,
the agreement by Zardari and Sharif has taken the form of a plan to
impeach Musharraf. Suprisingly, perhaps, Musharraf resigns and in
Septemmber, Zardari is elected president. The army, meanwhile, clears the Swat Valley in Pakistan.<br />
<br />
<b>The burden of the new leadership becomes apparent </b>when
the Hotel Mariott is bombedi in September, 2008. killing 50, with Islamists claiming
responsibility. In December, November's Mumbai massacre is traced by Indian
intelligence to a Pakistani terror group with suspicion focusing on
Lashkar-e-Taiba and links to elements in Pakistani intellligence.<br />
<br />
<b>The Taliban invade the Swat Valley.</b>
In February 2009 and the government obtains a ceasefire, allowing
limited Shria law in the area, Zardari finds himself between Islamists
and his American
ally as he protests US drone missile striles inside Pakistan in
November. His country's fragile relationship with the west is further
tested as Pakistan borrows billions from the IMF to fend of its debt
crisis. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>2009: THE TALIBAN CONTROLS THE SWAT VALLEY. </b><br />
<br />
<b>With the Taliban, meanwhile, in virtual control</b>
of Pakistan's northern Swat Valley, the government agrees in February,
2009, to allow the imposition of Sharia law in Swat in exchange for a
ceasefire. Pakistan's internatiomnal status falls lower yet in March as a
bus carrying the Sri Lankan soccer team is ambushed<b> </b>in Lahore
with several players injured and five police killed. In a rare victory
for secularism and democracy, the government is pushed by mass protests
into reinstating Supreme Court Justice Choudry and other justices fired
by Musharraf. Terror returns to Lahore as insurgents kill 40 at a police
academy.<br />
<br />
<b>In April the Taliban breaks the Swat Valley</b> <b>ceasefire</b>
and annxes more territory as the government launches a military
operation to cear Taliban from the region. On July 8th fanaticism rears
its head in Punjab as eight Christians are burned alive by Muslim
extremists in Gojra in Punjab. 17 insurgents are arrested in the
atrocity and realeased without trial.<br />
<br />
<b>2009: INDIA AND PAKISTAN AGREE TO FIGHT TERROR. </b><br />
<br />
<b>Meanwhile, fear of war between India and Pakistan remains so great </b>that
Prime Minister Gilani meets Prime Minister Singh of India, in July in
Cairo, to plot a strategy to fight terror without regard to political or
relgious differences. At home, later in July, 2009 Nawaz Sharif is cleared
of an old hijacking charge, enabling him to run for office. In the same
month, finally, the army clears the Taliban out of Swat Valley. In
August, Pakistan sends out an international alert in order to track
eleven suspects November's Mumbai massacre. In a move to erase the
authoritarian legacy of Musharraf,<b> </b>President Zardari orders the suspension of supreme court judges Musharraff had apppointed to replace those he had fired.<br />
<br />
<b>With the death of Pakistani Taliban leader Baitullah Mehsud </b>in a US drone missile attack at end of summer, a new leader, Hakimullah Mehsud, rises to ereplace him in October.<br />
<br />
<b>2009: THE US SEPARATES MILITARY AID FROM CIVILIAN AID TO PAKISTAN, </b><br />
<br />
<b>In one of US president Obama's changes of policy</b>,
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton obtains passage of a bill in
Congress separating military from civilian aid to Pakistan, making
military aid dependant on Pakistan purging Islamist elements from the
intelligence services and the military. In the fall, after a wave of
terror attacks kills 170 across Pakistan, the army, also acting under US
pressure, begins a 30,000 man offensive to destroy Hakimullah's Taliban
insurgency at its home base in South Waziristan. But just as Secretary
of State Clinton arrives for a visit in Pakistan, nearly 100 are killed
in a terrorist bombing in a Peshawar market.<br />
<br />
<b>Ethnic massacres continue into 2010 </b>,with
43 Shia murdered in a mosque in December, 2009 and over 200 Baluchis
killed by Baluch separatists in the first six months of 2010. Meanwhile
President Zidari brings in measures of long-needed reform, reducing the
power of the presidency, reforming the judiciary and providing autonomy
to the provinces.<br />
<br />
<b>The Islamist war on the West without, and on Muslim minorities within</b> continues as<b> t</b>he
Pakistan Taliban extends his reach to New York City before a car bomb
is discovered in Times Square and its operative sent to jail. The
Pakistani Taliban outfit, Tehrik-e-Taliban, (TTP) claims
responsibility. Attacks on Pakistan minorities by radical Islamists
continue with 90 Ahamadis killed in Lahore in May. Islamists launch an
attack on a Karachi courthouse freeing rebel fighters arrested in
December, 2009.<br />
<br />
<b> 2010: MASS FLOODING OF PAKISTAN ENDS UP EMPOWERING ISLAMISTS. </b><br />
<br />
<b>Deadly flooding in much of the country in August and September</b>, <b>2010,</b>
exposes the inefficiency of the government in extending supplies and
rescue, leaving open a large space for teams of Islamist militants to
gain adherents by providing emergency help and quick relief. More
insurgent bombings and attacks on the Shia appear to be attempts to
exploit the chaos caused by the flooding. <br />
<br />
<b>Citing the danger to it civilian population by American drone strikes, </b>Pakistan closes NATO supply routes in September. Sensing the country's continued disorder, former president <b>Musharraf </b>plans
an electoral comeback from exile in London. Meanwhile, proponents of
reform to Pakistan's draconian blasphemy law are murdered by Islamic
fundamentalists.<br />
<br />
<b>2011: US SPECIAL FORCES KILL OSAMA BIN LADEN INSIDE PAKISTAN.</b> <br />
<br />
<b>The May 2, 2011 killing of Osama Bib Laden in Abottabad, </b>inside
Pakistan by US Special Forces ans without Pakistan's knowledge, causes
as much embarrassment as outrage among the Pakistani military, further
straining an already strained relationship between the two countries.
Things get worse when US warplanes accidentally kill 25 Pakistani
soldiers. Once again Pakistan shuts down NATO supply routes to
Afghanistan. In Dcember the crisis continues with outcry over leaked
memos showing that the government had asked for US aid against an army
coup d'etat in response to US trespass in the killing of Bin Laden. <br />
<br />
<b>In January, 2012, The army is in uproa</b>r
over Prime Minister Gilani's firing of a defence official. Divisions
deepen as the Supreme Court threatens Prime Minister Gilani for
attempting to block an investigation of President Zardari on corruption
charges. Pakistan lays charges of treason against a doctor who worked
for the CIA in the tracking and killing of Bin Laden; in retalation,
the withdraws $33 million in anid. <br />
<br />
<b>Prime Minister Gilani is finally removed from office </b>by
the Supreme Court for attempting to block the investigation of
President Zardari for corruption. Pakistan finally reopens NATO supply
routes after the United States apologizes for the accidental killing of
Pakistani troops y US fighter jets. <br />
<br />
<b>2012: A CHRISTIAN GIRL IS ACCUSE OF BLASPHEM AGAINST ISLAM </b><br />
<br />
<b>In fall, 2012, a Christian girl in Islamabad is accused of blasphemy</b>
for displaying burnt pages of the Koran, causing widespread fear and
the exodus of local Christians. The case is dropped after it's
discovered that the evidence was planted. An even more notorious attack
by Islamist occurred when a 14 year old cool girl Mahala Yusufsai
survived being shot in the head by a gunman for protesting the closing
of schools for girls by the Taliban. Meanwhile, former cricket star <b>Imran Khan</b> launches his own political offensive by leading a protest against US drone missile strikes. <br />
<br />
<b>2013: BLOODY ISLAMIST ATTACKS ON SHIA CONTINUE. </b><br />
<br />
<b>November witnesses numerous casualties from Taliban attacks on Shia Muslims </b>in
Rawalpindi. Quetta and Karachi while celebrating their holy month of
Muharram. The terror group Lashkar-e-Jhangvi is believed to be
responsible. The bloodshed carries over into <b>January, 2013,</b> when
more Shia are murdered in Balushistan by Sunni extremists. The
gvernment sacks the Balushistan minister but Balushi demonstrations
demand the resignation of the government itself. The carnage continues
in Februrary as as scores of Shia are murdered by the same group.<br />
<br />
<b>Meanwhile in February, 2013, British Prime Minister David Cameron</b>
helps broker future talks between President Zardari and Afghan
president Karzai for a peace plan for Afghanistan. In Quetta, 89 Shia
are killed in a bomb attack for which Lashkar-e-Jhangy claims
responsibility. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>PAKISTAN UNTIL THE LATE 19TH CENTURY..</b>
From ancient times, the region of the Indus river lay at the frontier
between invasion from west and central Asia, on the one hand, and the empires of the
Indian subcontinent on the other. In the third millenium BC, the Aryans invaded from
Central Asia. The Indus, which runs southward from the highlands of
Central Asia and forms northwest India's natural border with continental
Asia, would provide a route of invasion and migration into India for
millennia to come. In the fourth and third centuries BC, the Maurya
empire of the Indian subcontinent governed the region as far as
Afghanistan. In the early centuries AD, the region of the Indus was
invaded and ruled by the Kushans of Central Asia. Thenceforward,
southeastward expansion from Asia would form the pattern up until
British rule in the 19th century. In 711, Arabs invaded, establishing
Islam in the region of Pakistan. Mahmud of Ghazni an Afghan warlord of
the Abbasid Caliphate, continued the pattern of conquest from the
northwest, conquering Sindh, crossing the Indus and plundering northern
India. In the 13th century, the Mongol invasions penetrated the region
from the north. In the early16th century, a Central Asian Muslim warlord
took the region again. Babur established his rule from central Asia to
northern India and founded the empire of the Moghuls which would last
until British rule. The late 16th century saw a rare reversal of the
pattern in which the Moghul emperor Akbar, from his base in northern
India, reconquered Sindh and Afghanistan- establishing enlightened rule
and an attempted synthesis of Hinduism and Islam. In the eighteenth
century, even as Britain began to colonize India, Persian and Afghan
Muslim warlords established brief empires extending south and east
across the Indus and into northern, Moghul India. With the British
occupation of Sindh, West Punjab, Baluchistan and the Northwest in the
late 19th century, the old pattern of conquest from the northwest ended.</div>
Hugh Grahamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16562832561349364940noreply@blogger.com0